The rule of reason, conteinyng the arte of logique, set forth in Englishe, by Thomas Vuilson

The rule of Reason , conteinyng the Arte of Logique , set forth in Englishe , by Thomas Vuilson .

An. M.D.LI.

¶ To the most excellent Prince , and our most redoubted souereigne Lord Edward the sixt , by the grace of God Kyng of England , Fraunce , and Ireland , Defendour of the faith , and of the Churches of England , and Irelande , in yearth the supreme heade , your moste faithfull and obedient subiect Thomas Wilson wisheth long life with moste prosperouse Reigne .

IF my power & habilite were answerable to my good wil , most excellent Prince and souereigne Lord , this token of mine humble duetie which I now offer vnto your Maiestie , shoulde be as great & preciouse , as by reason of the contrarie , it is base and slender . wherefore I most humbly beseche your Maiestie in no worse parte to accepte this litle offer , then as the present of a true faithfull subi●cte , which would haue brought better , if his power had bene therafter . But ●olowing the example of poore men in the auncient Histories of Plutarche , and other writers muche commended : I offer vnto you● highnesse parte of suche fruictes as haue growne in a poore studentes gardin . This f●uict b●ing of a straunge kynde ( such as no Englishe grounde hath before this time , and in this sorte by any tyllage brought forth , ) maie perhaps at the first tasting , seme somewhat rough , and harshe in the mouth , because of the straungenesse : but after a litle vse , and familiar accustomyng thereunto , I doubt not but thesame wil waxe euery one daie more pleasaunt then other . But in simple and plaine woordes to declare vnto your Maiestie , wherin my witt and earnest endeuour hath at this season trauailed : I haue assaie● through my diligence to make Logique as familiar to Thenglishe man , as by diuerse mennes industries the most parte of the other the liberall Sciences are . For considering the forwardenesse of this age , wherein the very multitude are prompte & ripe in al Sciences that haue by any mans diligence bene sett forth vnto them : weighyng also that the capacitie of my country men the Englishnacion is so pregnaunt and quicke to achiue any kynde , or Arte● of knowlege , whereunto wit maie attain , that they are not inferiour to any oth●r : And farther pondering that diuerse learned men of other countreis haue heretofore for the furtheraunce of knowlege , not suffred any of the Sciences liberal to be hidden in the Greke , or Latine tongue , but haue with most earnest trauaile made euery of them familiar to their vulgare people : I thought that Logique among all other beyng an Arte as apte for the English wittes , & as profitable for there knowlege as any the other Sciences are , myght with as good grace be sette forth in Thenglishe , as the other Artes , heretofore haue bene . And therefore I haue so farre as my slender practise hath enabled me , enterprised to ioyne an acquaintaunce betwiene Logique , and my countrymen , from the whiche they haue bene hetherto barred , by tongues vnacquaynted . Notwithstandyng I must nedes confesse , that the Printer hereof your Maiesties seruaunt prouoked me firste hereunto , vnto whome I haue euer founde my selfe greately beholdyng , not onely at my beyng in Cambrige , but also at all times els , when I moste neded helpe . But as touchyng the thyng self though I haue not done it with so good perfection as the worthinesse of the Arte requireth , or as some other better learned could do : yet I hope that wheras now it is dedicated vnto your highnesse , and so made commune to all : my good will shall want no fauorers in that I haue first labored to bring so noble a mistre●se , both of reason , and iudgement , acquainted with so noble a countre , & here to be made of a straunger a free denisen : wherin I take not vpon me so connyngly , & perfectely to haue writen of the said Arte , as though none could do it better : but because no Englishman vntill now hath gone through with this enterprise , I haue thought mete to declare that it maie be done . And yet herein I professe to be but as a spurre or a whet stone , to sharpe the pennes of someother , that they may polishe , and perfect , that I haue rudely & grossely entered . And albeit I do herein take vpon me no more but to bee as a poore meane man , or simple personne , whose charge were to be a lodesman to conuey some noble princesse into a straunge land where she was neuer before , leauyng the enterteinyng , the enrichyng and the deckyng of her to suche as were of substaunce and furniture according : yet if this worke maie now at the first enteraunce haue the saufe conduict and protection of your moste Royall Maiestie , I trust it shall in processe appere , and proue , that I haue not altogether in vain taken vpon me this straunge labour , but rather to very good purpose and effect attempted thesame . I knowe your grace for your owne studie litle nedeth any helpe of suche an Englishe treatise , beyng so well trauailed both in the Greke & in the Latine for the same purpose , through the helpe of those right worthie men Sir Ihon Cheke , and Sir Antony Cooke , your Maiesties teachers and Scholemaisters in all good litterature . But to fede & to satisfie the thirste and desire of suche Englishemen as for defaulte of the said tongues could otherwise not come to the knowlege of Logique : I haue iudged it labour worth to geue the preceptes and Rules thereof in English , that all men according to the gifte that to euery one is measured , maie be the more prouoked to folowe the examples of your Maiestie aswell in studiousnesse & desier of knowlege , as also in the exercise of all vertue , and pryncely worthinesse , wherinto your grace hath made a goodly entrie . In which most godly trade if your grace shall continue together with the feare of God , and the moste reuerent obseruacion of his most holy commaundementes , and Gospell , ( wherein at this daie al England to their incomparable ioye and comforte doth see and find your Maiesties chief delite to be ) it cannot be doubted , but that the same shal be to the wicked a terrour , to the godly a comforte , to this Realme of England , a perpetuall defence and sauegarde● and to al Christian Kynges , either now liuyng or hereafter to come , an example of Kyngly worthynesse , and a myrroure of Pryncely gouernaunce . And where as to the most noble Kinges of Israel and Iuda , the lord for their sundrie vertues gaue sundry giftes of his grace ( as to Dauid his dearling , puissaunce and might against his enemies● to Salomon , wisdome and richesse : to Aza , innocencie of life , and purenesse of Religiō● to Iosaphat , prudence of Kyngly regiment to sette good ministers , and officers vnder him : to good Kyng Iosias , the aduauncement of Godes true seruice , and the rotyng vp of Idolatrie : to Ioathan , a longe and prosperous Reigne in all godly rest & quietnesse : ) all these noble giftes of Regal excellencie , shall the lord your guide & gouernour vouchesafe to powre vpon your highnes , to endewe you with all , in whome are nowe planted suche graffes of his heauenly grace , as the frute hereafter is moste like to be incomparable . Which thyng that it maie so bee , your Maiestie hath , and perpetually shall haue , the daily , and incessaunte prayers of all vs your most faithfull louing subiectes , for the long and prosperouse Reigne of your highnesse● to the glorie of God , the honour and Princely dignitie of your selfe , & the welth of your Realmes and dominions , long to endure , Amen .

GVALTERVS HADDONVS Cantabrigiensis , Legum Doctor . Grammatice , lingua nos est affata Britanna , Curreret ut Latiis lingua Latina rotis . Nunc 〈◊〉〈◊〉〈◊〉〈◊〉〈◊〉 ●enit , & nostris se uocibus effert , Vt ratio nostros possit habere sonos● Ant● , peregrinis linguis instructa fuisti Anglia , nunc propria discere uoce potes . Grāmaticen laudant omnes , quia uerba poliuit : Qualis erit 〈◊〉〈◊〉〈◊〉〈◊〉〈◊〉 nos ratione regens ? Attulit hàc , nostras Thomas wilsonus ad aures Vtilis & patriae sic suit ille suae .

The Arte of Logique .

Logique is an art to reason probably on both partes , of all matters that be put furth , so farre as the nature of euery thing canne beare .

The diuision of Logique .

THis Arte is deuided into .ii. partes . The first parte standeth in framing of thinges aptlye together , in knitting woordes , for the purpose accordingly , & in Latin is called Iudicium . Iudicium

The second parte consisteth in finding out matter , and searching stuffe agreable to the cause , and in Latine is called Inuentio . Inuentio . For you must vnderstande , that when one goeth about to proue any thing , he must firste inuente somewhat to proue his cause , the which when he hath done : he muste vse iudgement , bothe in framing the same reason so inuented , & also to see , whether it serueth for the purpose or not .

¶ And now some wil say , that I should first speake of the finding out of an argument , before I should teache the waye how to frame an argument . Truthe it is that naturally we finde a reason or we beginne to fashion thesame . And yet notwithstanding , it is more mete that the ordring of an argument shoulde be first handeled : forasmuche as it shal no more profit a man to find out hi● argument , except he first know how to order thesame and to shape it acording●y ( which he doth not yet perfectli know ) then stones or Timber shal profite the ●●a●on or Carpenter , which knoweth not how to work vpon thesame . A reason is easlier found then fashioned , for euery manne can geue a reason naturally and without arte , but how to fashion and frame thesam● , according to the art , none can do at all , except they be learned . Therfore , because euery mans wit can geue lightly a reason of diuers thinges without any learning at all , euen by the instinct of nature , & yet not be able to set thesame in order Scholerlike , either to proue or to confute : I purpose firste to shew the maner of making an Argumente , as whyche is more nedefull : Nexte after that ye shall learne the maner of finding of an Argument . And the places where all Argumentes dooe reste , and laste of all ye shall know the captious or deceiptful Argumentes , as they be in Aristotle .

A brief declaration in meter , of the vij , liberal artes , wherin Logique is comprehended as one of them . GRammer dothe teache to vtter wordes . To speake bothe ape and playne , Logiquely art settes furth the truth , And doth tel 〈◊〉 what is vayne . Rethorique at large paintes wel the cause , And makes that seme right gay , Whiche Logique spake but at a worde , And taught as by the way . Musike with tunes , d●lites the eare , And makes vs thinke it heauen , Arithmetique by number can make Reconinges to be ●auen . Geometry thinges thicke and brode , Measures by L●ne and Square , Astronomy by sterres doth tel , Of foule and eke of fayre .

¶ The difference betwene Logique and Sophistry .

LOgique otherwise called Dialecte ( for they are bothe one ) is an Arte to try the corne from the chaffe , the truthe from euery falshed , by defining the nature of any thing , by diuiding thesame , and also by knitting together true Argumentes and vntwining all knotty Subtiltees that are bothe false , and wrongfully framed together .

¶ Sophistrie is euer occupied eyther in prouing the truthe alwayes to bee false , or els that whiche is false to be true , so that euermore● one parte of the argument is either false , by vsing some ambiguous worde , or by not wel appliyng it to the purpose , or els not framing it according to the Rules : so that a skilful artificer● mai the soner put the vayne Sophister to silence by opening the fraude , & declaring the crafte of his inuencion . Wheras otherwise an argument made by the rulers of Logique cannot be auoyded , but must nedes be true , whosoeuer say nay . And so muche more is Logique to be preferred before Sophistrie , as he is the more to be estemed that telleth a true tale , them he whiche telleth a lie . And euen as a Grammarian is better liked , that speketh true and good Latine , then he is that speaketh false : Euen so Logique of it selfe is good , when Sophistrie on the otherside is nought . And wel may we saye , that Sophisters are like those whiche play with false dice , and would make other beleue that they are true , or els properly to tearme them , they be like those that go for honest men and are none .

The difference betwene Logique and Rethorique .

BOthe these Artes are much like sauing that Logique is occupied aboute all matters , and doeth playnly and nakedly setfurthe with apt wordes the summe of thinges by the way of Argumentacion . Againe of the other side Rethorique vseth gay paincted Sentences , and setteth furth those matters with fresh colours and goodly ornamentes , and that at large

Insomuche , that Zeno beyng asked the difference betwene Logique and Rethorique , made answere by Demonstration of his Hande , declaring that when his hande was closed , it resembled Logique , when it was open & stretched out , it was like Rethorique .

The Office of Logique .

LOgique professeth to teach truly , orderly & plainly . And here wee may se how vniuersall this commoditie is , and howe largely it extendeth , not onely to know worldly affaires : but also to know God , and all his heauenvly workes , so farre as nature may comprehend .

There be .iiij. partes of this office or duty wherunto Logique is bounde . That is . To define the nature of euerye thing , to diuide , to knitte true argumentes , and vnknit false ,

Of Questions .

THIS same maner of knitting wordes in a due order , beyng one of the partes of Logique , or rather Logique it self , sheweth the maner of all Questions , called otherwise either Propositions , or seueral wordes .

A question is either a word or sentence put furth , as when I aske what such a thing is , & would know an other mans aduise therin , as thus , What is man ? What is truthe ? What is ambicion ?

Euery Question is either Single or double . A single question resteth in a single word , as thus . What is frendship ? What is Philosophy ? A doble question standeth not in one word , but in .ii. seueral sentences , as thus . Is the study of Philosophy praise worthy , or is it not ?

Lykewise a proposition , which is a sentence vttered in plain wordes e●presly signifiyng either truth or falshed , is either single or doble . A single Proposition as thus : Wicked men cannot abide to reade the word of God . Of the whiche you may make a double proposition by addyng somwhat therunto as thus . Wicked men not onely can they not abide to reade the word of God , but also they seke by al meanes possible to ouer throwe the same .

¶ Of the ●iue Predicables , otherwise called the fiue common wordes , which are spoken of other

WHen we go about to expound any matter , first we must beginne with the definition , to know the very nature of the thing , the whiche we cannot do , except we first learne the predicables , for thei shew the largenes and the narrownes of wordes , how farre they do extende , and how muche they comprehende in them . As when I se one afarre of come vnto me , first I know that he is a man , then when he commeth nigher , I know whether he be of mine acquaintance or no. Likewise , when I go aboute to declare what one is , & to open the nature of any thing , I vse the largest words , & so it must nedes bee , that I begin with the Predicables , because they shewe how muche euery worde doth comprehende in it selfe , and how large or narrow it is . They be called Predicables because some one thing is spoken of an other . And they are ( as a man wold say ) markes or notes of words that are spoken of many , shewing how & by what manner the same words are atributed to other .

They be .v. in number . Genus The general worde . Species The Kinde Differentia The difference . Proprium The properte . Accidens The thing chauncing or cleuing to the substance

GENVS is a general word , Genus the which is spoken of many that differ in their kind : as when this Question is asked , What it is . As Animal . A liuing creature . Ars an Arte. Virtus , Uertue . Gemma . A precious stone . Or els thus . Genus , is a general worde , vnder the whiche diuers kindes or sortes of things are comprehended , as vnder a liuing creature are comprehended men & beastes . Under art , are comprehended , Logique , Grammer , Retorique . &c. Euery general word , hath diuers kindes , & is spoken euermore , of theim al. As Gemma . A precious stone . comprehendeth in it self , A Saphire , A Rubie , A Christal , A Turkas . As thus . Saphirus est gemma . A Saphire is a precicious stone . And so of other .

¶ Euery general worde is .ij. wayes considered , and commonlye called the ch●ef general , in latin , Genus ●●mum . and the midle general , in latin , Genus intermedium .

The chief general is so● that where as it is the head of al & aboue al , it can neuer become inferior , to be of any kinde or sort in thinges . As the Substance the Quantitee , the Qualitee , are euer chief generall wordes , and cannot bee comprehended vnder any other .

The middle general , is the same that beyng comprehended betwixt the chief general , and the lowest kinde or sort in thynges , maye be also some kynde or fourme it self , as a body , a liuing creature : the whiche .ij. beyng compared with their in●eriors , are generall wordes : beyng referred to their superiors , they are Species . That is to say , shapes , kindes or sortes in thinges .

Species , seu fo●ma , the kinde , or sort of any thing comprehended , vnder a worde more vniuersall , is thesame of whome the general woorde , is spoken , when the question is asked , what it is . As when I aske , What is Iustice ? I answere a Uertue . Therfore in this proposition ( Iustice is a vertue ) Iustice is the Species , and vertue is the general worde , which comprehendeth the sayde Iustice , and is spoken of the same

Or thus , Species ● is a common word that is spoken of many whiche differ only in number , as manne is spoken of Socrates , Plato , Aristotle , and of euery proper name belonging to any man . As Socrates is a man . Plato is a man . Aristotle is a man .

Euery Species or kinde in thinges is of .ij. sortes . The one is called the lowest kind , whiche is alwayes spoken of euery proper name , & euer is Species neyther can it at any tyme be Genus , although somtime it beare the name of genus . The other is called Species intermedia , that is the kind placed betwixt the higheste and the loweste , whiche at diuers times and by diuers considerations may both be Genus , and Species For that whiche is vnder the generall Woorde that same maye be called Species or Kinde , that whiche comprehendethe other , maye bee called the general word .

¶ A Nowne proper is that wherof the kinde is rehersed . As Cato est Homo . Cato is a man : in this proposition , Cato is the Nowne proper , which belongeth to one man only , and Man , is the kinde , whiche is more large , and comprehendeth all men .

THis Table sheweth the Order of euery substaunce and kinde as they are apointed by nature , what are the chief generall woordes , what are the midle general , what are the lowest kindes in euery thing , and what are the kindes bewixt bothe .

with body A Substance . Without bodie . as God Angelles Spirites . The soule of man . Compounded of diuers elemente● A body . Withoute mixtur as the iiij . elementes . Fire . Ayer . Water . Earth heauen and al the planetes . Being a liuing thing A body compounded With oute life as Stones . Metalles Liquores . hauing the sence of feling A body liuing . Withoute Sence or feling at al as a Tree . a Shrubbe . an Hearbe ? Endued with reason . A liuing creature . Withoute the gift of reason as Beastes , birdes or fishe , some liuing . vpon the lande . in the Water . in the Ayer or in bothe . A man . as . Scipio . Socrate● Alexander and euery seueral man liuing .

Di●●erentia . ¶ Differentia , that is to say the difference , is the same that is spoken of many whiche differ in fourme and kinde , when the question is asked , What maner of thing it is , as when wee saye . Quale quid est homo ? What maner of thing is man ? we must answere , He is endued with reason . Yf the question be asked what is a man , we must answere by his Genus , or general word , he is a liuing creature . If the question be asked what maner of thing a beast is ? We may sai , He is without the gift of reason . Euery difference that is moost proper to euery thing , is naturally and substancially ioyned to the kinde●●hiche is comprehended vnder the general worde ,

Proprium . PROPRIVM , That is to say a properte , is a natural pro●e●es , & manner of doyng , whiche agreeth to one kinde and to the same onely and that euermore . And also mai be spoken of the same kind , and by conuersion , the same kinde may be spoken of him also . As to speake & to haue power to laugh , doeth only agre to man , & to none other creature earthely . And as I may say , Whosoeuer is a man hath power geuen him of nature to speake : So may I also say by conuersion backewarde , whoso euer hath power geuen him of nature , to speake , that same body is a ma● . To barke is proper to a Dogge , and onely proper and euermore proper . Ergo whosoeuer hathe power or rather an inclination geuen of nature to Barke , that same is a dogge . And again , Whatsoeuer creature is a dogge , that same hath powre or rather an inclination to bark . To go vpright is proper to a man , & only to a man , & to none other liuing creature . Notwithstanding , you must mark one thing , that although many men go crooked & some also cannot speak● : yet bothe to go vpright & to speake are proper to all men generally , and therefore this rule serueth to auoid such obiections . Verba in definitionibus posita , non actum , sed potētiam significant . which is asmuch to say , that wor●●s vied in definitions , do not signifie the very acte in dede , but the power , the apines , or the inclination of nature therunto : as when I sai , it is proper for euery man to speke I meane to be able or to be apt by Nature to speake , is proper to euery man .

¶ Note further that Proprium is not alwayes taken after one sorte , but it is foure wayes considered .

First the propertie is that which agreeth to some kinde only , although not to euery persone comprehended vnder the same kind . As it is proper to a man only to be a Poete , or to be a Phisition , and yet not proper to euery man . Secondly , the propertie is that whiche agreth to euery singuler persone , and yet not onely to Man . As to haue two fete agreeth to euery singuler persone , and yet not to man onely . Thirdly , the propertie is that whiche agreeth to euery man , and to man only and yet not alwayes nor for euermore . As to haue hoare heares in the old age agreeth to man only , & yet not alwayes , but for the moste parte menne haue hoare heares in theyr olde age . Fourthly , the propertie is that which in dede is most aptly and chiefly called Proprium , when any thing doeth agre to euery man , to man only and alwaies to man . As to be able to Speake , to laughe , to go vpright , agreeth to euery man , to man only , and alwayes to man

This diuersite many haue made betwixt the difference & the properte , that the difference is one parte of Mannes substance , and is the parte that maketh vp man . As to haue the gift of reason doeth signifie the minde , whiche is one parte of man , for man himself is compact of body and minde .

A Propertie doth signifie a certaine thing , Whiche is attributed to Man when he is made , and as a man woulde say , doth come after , when man is holy made , as to be able to speake , to laugh , to go vpright .

Accidens ( that is to say , a thing cleauing , or chaunsing , or comming to a substaunce ) is that which doth not stande by himselfe , neither is the parte of a substance , but rather is after suche sorte in the substaunce , that it may bothe be away , and be there , sometimes more and sometime lesse , without destruction or losse of the Subiecte , or substaunce , as mirth , sorow , to runne , to sit , to be well coloured , all these may be away , & yet the man maie be on lyue in whom they ware before . So that the lacke of them in their quantite , or greatnes , is not the losse of the Substaunce . And al though no Substaunce at any tyme doth altogether forsake his Accidentes , Yet this we see , that one & the same Substance , doth some time alter his Accidentes , forsaking some , and takyng other . As water beyng sette on the fire , altereth the coldnes , & taketh heat , so that we maie iudge by this , that coldenes in the water is not a Substaunce , but an Accident .

An Accident is two wayes considered , for either it may be separated , or it maie not● some maie be separated from their Subiecte as colde maie be taken from water , and knoweledge from the mind . Other are inseparable , because they cannot be taken awaie al together , as ●●ature or brodenes , cannot be taken from man . Heate cannot be taken from fire , nor moisture from water , the which notwithstandyng they are not separat from their substaunce , yet the quantite or greatnes is changeable in euery one of them , for some time it is more , and some time it is lesse . And wee se heate in other thynges to be separated from the Subiecte . Where vpon we iudge that the heate is an other thyng then the very Substance of fire . Therfore this is worthy to be knowen , that the Substaunce is one thyng , and the Accident an other thyng , and mete it is to make a difference betwixt them , as thus . The soule is one thyng , the feare of God is an other thing . Man may be without the feare of God ( as many one is at this day the more pite ) Therfore the feare of God is an Accident , the soule is a Substaunce .

¶ The vse and commodite , which we hau● by these fiue commune wordes called otherwise Predicables .

THere be .iiij. especiall commodites . First they shew the largenesse , and the narrownes of the most generall wordes , called otherwise Predicamentes , whiche hereafter folowe : so that here by , you may perceiue howe muche euery word comprehendeth in it selfe , and howe farre it may be applied . The second profite is , that euery thyng is defined by these fiue common woord●s , forasmuche as al thynges the more narowe they be , are alwayes defined by wordes that are more large . As by the general worde , by the difference , and the propretie . Thirdly , they are good to iudge the knitting of wordes , and to se what thing may truely be ioyned to other . for there is no Proposition , nor yet ioi●ing together of any sentence ( accordyng to the common order of nature ) but they alwayes agre to these aboue rehersed Predicables : so that either the kynd is spoken of the singular or proper name ( which is euer some one person , as thus● Cicero est homo . Cicero is a man ) Or els the general worde , the difference , the propretie , or the accident , are all spoken either of the kynde , or of some one person● as thus● Homo , vel Cicero● est animal ratione praeditum , loquendi facultatem habens , album , longum , latum . A man , or Cicero , is a liuing creature , endewed with reason , hauing aptnes by nature , to speake , beyng , white , long , and brode . So that no proposition can be , but the partes of the same are comprehended with in these .v. commune wordes . Fourthlie , the general worde , the kynde , the difference , & proprete are ioyned together necessarily , so that when yow name one , al thother folowe . Therfore when a proposition is made from the kynde , to the general , to his difference , or propertie : it is euermore an vndoubted true proposition , as this . Homo est animal ratione praeditum , loquendi facultatem habens . A man is a liuing creature endewed with reason , hauyng aptenesse by nature to speake . A man can not he except he be a liuyng creature , endewed with reason and hauing aptnes of nature to speake . The accident not withstandyng is not necessarely spoken of the subiect , but is there casually , & may be chaunged , as thus . Homo est albus . Somme man is white . This proposition may be aftreward false , for he may be blacke , or alter his complexion some other way , so that the accident is often altered , & an other succedeth in his ronme . Therfore it is good to be knowen , when you haue a Proposition , whether it be vndoubted true , for euermore , or els maye be false at any tyme .

¶ Of the Predicamentes , called in Englishe Generall wordes .

A Predicament is an ordre of single wordes , wherein thynges of one kinde , are couched and comprehended vnder one woorde , whiche is most generall .

A Predicamente is nothyng els in Englishe , but a shewyng or a rehersyng what wordes maye be truely ioyned together , or els a settyng furthe of the nature of euery thyng , & also shewyng what may be truely spoken and what not . and for this cause artes were inuented , because that the truth might be knowen , & euery thyng vttered with his propre wordes . For when I say , A man is a creature , I know this proposition hath his propre wordes , and that like as Man is a Substaunce , so is the creature , which is the generall worde vnto him , which bothe are in one Predicamente , and the ordre in this Proposition is obserued accordyng to the Arte , for we muste alwaies begynne at the lowest and go vpwardes , which ordre agreth also to nature , when thynges lesse knowne , are declared by thinges that are more knowen , as shall more plainly hereafter appere .

The Predicamentes are deuided in to the Substaunce , and the Accidente . The first , is both called the Substaunce and is a Substaunce in deede . The other are Accidentes , as not beyng of the Substaunce , but cleauyng therevnto .

The commoditee of these Predicamentes is great . First , where as they be deuided into the Substaunce & Accident , it is a good lesson to know euermore the substaunce , from the thing which is Accidentall . Again , of these moste generall woordes ariseth this profite● that if you wil define any thing , or shew the nature thereof , you maye know in which of al these store houses the worde resteth , whiche shoulde expresse the nature of another .

Thirdly , yf one will bestow a litle diligence herin , searchyng where euery worde is setteled , & knowyng to which of al these most general wordes he may best referre it : he shal faithfully knowe the nature of all thynges , no man better , then the which , nothing is more necessary . and this difference is betwixte the .v. commune wordes otherwise called the Predicables , and these most generall wordes called Predicamentes , that the Predicables , set forth the largenesse of wordes , the Predicamentes do name the verey nature of thynges , declaryng ( and that substantially ) what they are in very deede .

¶ A note of certaine thynges diligently to b● obserued before the rehersal of the most generall wordes .

COnsideryng ambiguite bredeth error , moste warenesse ought to be vsed , that the doublenesse of no one worde deceaue the hearer . The cause of all controuersie , is either the not wel vnderstanding , or els the wily vsyng of wordes that in sence haue double meanyng . Aristotel the Scolemaister to all scholers , geueth good warning that all men be right ware in any wyse to haue the ryght vnderstanding of euery seueral worde .

There be wordes that vnder one & the same title , comprehende the nature of many thynges , as these wordes folowyng .

as a Croune . as a Beare . as Tyme . as Sage . a noble

A croune signifieth the croune of a mans head , & also signifieth a croun of gold , suche as is curraunt , or els suche as Kynges weare at the daye of their coronacion . A beare , signifieth a brute beast that is baited with dogges , & also signifieth the cophine where in a dead man is caried to his burial . Tyme noteth both the space of howre , daie and yeare , and yet we call an herbe by that name , whiche groweth in gardyns . Sage also betokeneth an herbe , & yet we cal wyse men , sage men : so that euery one of these wordes haue a double meanyng , and ioyned onely together by felowship of name , by nature , and in very deede , do veri muche dissente . Therfore this ought euermore to be marked that al wordes be wel noted according to their natures , that the rather wee may escape errour . Those are onely to be receiued and vsed , for the mayntenaunce of all truthe whose name , and nature is all one , or the which are euer more to be taken and vnderstanden after one sorte . As homo a man , signifieth none other thing but man . Arbor , a tree signifieth none other thyng in all the worlde but a tree only , and so of other . If any worde be vsed that hath a double meanyng , restrayne the largenesse therof , and declare how yow wil haue it taken , by meanes wherof , the fraude shall soner be auoided , and the truthe bette● knowen .

The Predicamentes are in number .10 . 1 Substantia . The Substance . 2 Quantitas . The Quantite . 3 Qualitas . The Qualitee . 4 Relatiua . The Relacion . 5 Actio . The maner of doing . 6 Passio . The Suffring . 7 Quando . When. 8 Vbi . Where . 9 Situs . The Settelling . 10 Habitus . The appareiling .

SVbstātia , the Substance , or beyng which Cicero calleth Nature , is a thing whiche standeth by it selfe , and nedeth no helpe of an other , but hathe his propre beyng and substaunce naturally , or thus .

The substaunce is a thing whiche hath his propre being of hymsel●e , and conteineth accidentes whiche happen therunto , neither can any substance be sene , sauing only the accidentes , as the colour , the greatenes , and suche lyke qualities of man are sene , but the very substaunce cannot be sene .

¶ The diuision of the Substance .

THe substance is diuided into the first , and second . The first substance is called euery singuler persone or propre name as Socrates , Plato , Virgil , Homere .

¶ The second substance comprehendeth both the general worde , and the kinde also of euery singuler persone , as thus Tullie , Coesar , Hanibal with other . Likewise this word ( a liuing creature ) being a substance and general worde to euery propre name conteineth al thinges particulerlie that haue life .

It is profitable to marke the order of substaunce , set furthe in a table a litle before , for we maie by the same , deuide seuerally euery substaunce , of all thynges in this worlde● the whiche when we knowe , and remembre in our myndes , we perceiue euidently , the difference , betwene God , and his creatures , & seyng the thyng created of God and the properties there with all , we rest vpon the same , and learne the vse , and propre commoditie of many thinges here in yearth . We maie define many thynges , by the same table : as we maie define God , man , heauen , yearth , beast stone , & any thyng els that is a substance .

¶ Of quantitee .

THe quantitie , is the greatnes of a thyng , or the nombre . And proper it is to this mooste generall woorde , to be deuided , as greatnesse , is deuided into seuerall partes , and nombres into euery seuerall nombre .

¶ Quantitee is .ii. waies considered .

The one is called Continua quantitas , that is , when the question is asked , how greate , or brode any thyng is● and therefore the length , the latitude , and the depenesse of bodies artificiall , are herein obserued : the vse whereof , is moste sene in Geometrie .

The other is called discreta quantitas , when the question is asked , how many thinges there be , and is occupied altogether in nombryng . The vse of this is perceiued in Arithmetique .

¶ Of qualit●e .

THe qualite , is a forme , or shape of the body , or mynde , wherof some name is deriued , as of wisedom , men are called wise , of Iustice , men are called Iust .

There be three maner of qualitees , whereof the first doth contein the habite , otherwise called , the perfecte hauyng of any thyng . The other is , a forwardnes in any thing , gotten by labour and trauaile , not geuen by natures goodnesse , or els wee maie call it , the halfe attainyng of that , whiche we go aboute to haue , wantyng perfeccion , for lacke of full tyme , and is called in Latine dispositio , as to haue meane knowlege , & not to be fully instructed in the practise of iustice , is dispositio . Again to be fully learned , to haue accomplished all thynges , due to righteousnesse and Iustice , is called in Latine , habitus , as who should saie , the absolute atteinyng , and strong hold of thesame . The pith of this worde habitus , can hardely be vttered with one worde in this our tongue . Notwithstandyng it maie in mo wordes be opened , for the better vnderstandyng of it . For euen as wax chaufed with the hande , is made softer , euen so some partes of man are made by vs more apte to compasse any thing . He that vseth oft to speake Frenche , shall by continuance , obtein perfeccion : he that vseth much to write , at length shall haue a redy hande , and this is called habitus . So that no man hath knowlege , or perfecte skill in any thyng , except he get it by labour , & acquaint nature with trauail . Notwithstandyng , I muste nedes confesse , that all natures be not like apte , to receiue knowlege . Some are geuen to one thing and some to another . Therefore 〈◊〉 whiche by nature haue a promptnes●e● shall so●er attein perfeccion , then any other can do , if by labour and earnest trauaile , they will stretche to attein that whereunto thei are apt , and with good indeuoure , ●ilip nature forward . God geueth some one manne a passyng gift , to serche the influence of the starres , to another he graunteth , a natural enclinacion to Musike , and al heauenly harmonies . So that if either of these two , would seke to folowe their natural aptnesse , it wer moste like thei should e●cell . Other that do not finde nature so fauorable , can neuer come to any suche perfeccion .

The full atteinyng of any thyng , by long tyme , is twoo waies considered , for either it is of the body , or els of the mynde . Perfection , gotten b● helpe of the body , is when men can by muche vse , leape , wrastle , or cast the barre , better then any other , or els do excell in any handie craft , aboue the common sorte .

The habite of the mynde , that is to saie , that constaunt hold of any thyng , whiche is in the mynde , either consisteth in knowlege , or els in practise . In knowlege , are comprehended all artes as Grammer , Logique , Astronomie &c. and all other learnyng , wherunto wit canne atteine . That habite of the mynde , whiche is in practise , and by good aduisement is chosen , standeth in the will of man . As all vertue , and all vice do . Iuste dealyng euermore , manhode in sufferyng all harmes stoutly for honesties sake , and temperaunce of life , in forbearyng lust , and ●ilthie glotonie . These vertues though their ofspryng be from God , yet tyme maketh them perfect , in the iyes of man . Other vertues are geuen of God wholy , and altogether without mannes labor to attain them . As faithe , hope , charitee , & all other like giftes of the holy ghoste .

The second forme , is called the power strength , or pronesse of nature , in latine Naturalis uis . And the contrary herevnto , is called the weakenesse of nature , when she hath denied her power , to any one thyng , in Latine it is called Imbecillitas naturae .

The natural strength , is an aptnes of nature , geuen either to the body , or to the mynd . To the mynd , as the aptnes to learne , the promptnes of memory● of the body ( in man ) to be apt by nature to wrastle , for a horse , to be quicke and stirryng , for a birde , to be apte to flie , for fishe , to liue in the water , ( the whiche man cannot dooe ) for an Asse to be slowe , for a stone to be hard . &c. Naturall weakenes , is when nature diminisheth her gift , as when she denieth aptnes to learnyng , as we see many dull wittes for lernyng , & muche vnfit that waie . Nature hath denied some men , health of body , that thei are neuer wel at ease , some men are so sicke in their braine , that thei are neuer wise , some are capons by kynd , and some so blunt by nature , that no arte can whet them An Asse will neuer bee swifte , a stone will neuer be soft of nature . All qualities be instrumentes of nature , where by the worketh , as heate , is the instrument of fire . The heate and cold , in the iuyce of herbes are instrumentes , wherby menne either are healed , or els past healyng , for this worlde .

The third kynd comprehendeth , the affeccions of manne , called in Latine , pe●turbationes , and also those passions whiche tary but for a litle while .

A perturbacion , or els affeccion , is a sodain chaunge of the mynd , and also of the body .

There bee . iii● . perturbacions principall , whiche are in the mynd , whereof all other haue their ofspryng .

Libido , seu cupidi●as . Lust or desire . Leticia . Mirthe . ●g●●tudo . Grief . Metus . Feare .

The whiche are stirred vp , by some mocion of the mynd , either desiryng any thyng earnestly , or abhorry●g the same

There be fiue perturbacions of the body , whiche moue the senses , and are c●lled thynges offered to the senses● as colours , either whitenesse , blacknesse , or any like , moue the iyes . All soundes and ●oyses that be made● moue the hearyng , as co●ghyng , speakyng , bra●yng of a D●ere●●lowyng of a Cow , or neighyng of an horse . Sauors moue the smellyng , as perfumes , swete odours , the strong smell of ordure , and suche filth . Sauces moue the taste , as bitternes , tart●es , sow●rnes . Suche qualities as are touched , moue the sence of touchyng as hardnes , softnes , roughnes , plaines .

The affeccions , called Patibiles qualitates , ( the passions that abide but awhile ) differ from perturbacio●s , for as muche as thei tary not long , but sodainly come , and sodainly goo , as blushyng in a mannes face , sodain feare , sodainly to chaunge coloure , and ware pale . The other tary longer , as en●ie , ambicion , loue , continuall feare , gredinesse , with suche other .

The fourthe comprehendeth● the figure , and fourme of any thyng . The figure comprehend●th the shape of thynges that haue no life , as the fashion of the Element● of trees , of floudes , of an house , a shippe , a cote , and suche like .

The forme conteineth the portrature of al liuyng thynges , as the very liuely image of man , of an horse , or a lion , as we cal a man well fauored , or hard fauored .

¶ The table of qualitie .

TheQualitee. Of the mynde . Of the body . Of the mynde Geuen by nature , as the naturall inclinacion to any thyng . Gotten by studie . Gotten by ●●udy Tariyng stil with a man , and hardely goyng awaie . Goyng ●one awaye , as the affeccions . Tariyng still with a man . As knowledge , whiche either consisteth by practised skill . Or els by speculacion , and by the only obseruacion of thynges natural . Practised skill . Either of vertue . Or els of v●ce . Of vertue . As Iustice . Fortitude . Temperaunce . Temperance or iust dealyng of euery synguler persone . As Ca●o , Socrates , Plato .

¶ Of Relatiues .

RElatiues are those , whiche are comprehended with other , or the whiche are named , one with another , and ( as a man would say ) haue a mutuall respect , one to another .

The other predicamentes before rehersed , were absolutely spoken , so that we maie vnderstande by one , and thesame woorde , what it meaneth . As we may perceiue what a man is , although we ioyne nothyng to hym , wee knowe what Iustice is , although we compare hym with none other thyng . But these Relatiues , cannot bee so well vnderstanden , excepte we ioyne some thyng to them . As when I saie a father , I can not so call hym , excepte I vnderstande a sonne that he hath . So that euery body is called a father , in respect that he hath a sonne , or els not . Again , no body can be called a Schole Master , except he haue scholers . There is no husband except he ha●e a wife .

Therefore we maie se , that Relatiues are referred euermore to another , neither can thei bee taken absolutely , without hauyng respect , to some other worde . There is no worde , but we maie considre thesame to bee a Relatiue , if we referre it to some other thyng , and therefore wee maie go throughout all the predicamentes , with this one place , and finde relacion in euery one of them .

Those that are referred to some thyng , are of two sortes . First thei are properly so called , as the father , and the sonne , the master , and his seruaunt , neither can thei be considered , excepte thei bee compared with some other , for when one is called father , he is properly so called , because he hath a sonne , and thereof hath he his proper beyng .

Again relatiues , vnproperly so called , are those seuerall woordes , whiche are knowen , & haue their beyng , euen when thei stande alone : and yet considered with other , thei haue diuerse respectes . as loue , is the loue of the thyng loued . Or thus , loue beholdeth the thyng loued . Faithe beholdeth that thyng , whervnto it leaueth . And therfore where as Paule saieth , we beyng iustified by faithe , haue peace before God , it is asmuche to saie , that we are not receiued for the worthinesse of the qualitee , but for his sake , that is the sonne of God . For I praie you , whervnto leaueth faithe , or what thyng doeth it els behold ? Sauyng onely our Lorde Iesus , that died freely once for al. Or els thus , Relatiues are so called , ( and yet vnproprely ) whiche are not accordyng to their propre beeyng , but accordyng as thei are so named , whereof the .vj. predicamentes that folowe , beare the name . As he that doth any thyng , is referred to a thyng doen , whe●ein the twoo places that folowe are declared , whiche signifie , to do , and to suffer . By the place ( vbi ) where , one neighbor is compared with his ne●t neighbor . By the place quando , when , A childe of .vj. yere olde , is compared with a child of thesame yeres . He that lieth vpright , is compared with him that● lieth doune grouelyng . In all these the proper beeyng , is not declared , for a childe maie bee sixe yeres of age , although he be not compared with another , and therefore it is called relatio secundum dici improprie . But a man can neuer be a father , sauyng o●ely in consideracion of his sonne And yet note this one thyng , it is proper to all Relatiues , alwaies to be true , euen by conuercion . And thus whosoeuer is a father , thesame hath a sonne , whosoeuer is a sonne , thesame hath a father . Who soeuer hath faithe , that same man leaneth to Christ onely . Whosoeuer leaneth to Christ onely , that same manne hath faithe . Here are twoo thynges to be marked in relacion . The ground of euery thyng , and the ende wherevnto it hath respecte , or consideracion . As a father is the grounde , in that he doeth begette , and hath respect to his sonne , in that he is begotten . The sonne is the ground , in that he is begotten , & hath respect to his father , whiche did beget hym . And thus likewise in all other .

The table of the Relatiues .

By nature . As by the cause and the effect , the father , and the sonne , are considered . By some maner or waye vsed . The magistrate , and the Mace , the Kyng , and his sworde caried before hym are compared together . By degrees in callyng . The lord , and his seruant , the aduocat , and his client . By kynted . The brother and Sister . Relatiues are compared one with an other . By mariage . The sonne in lawe , the mother in lawe . By couenaunt . The graunter of a lease , and the tenaunt . By accidental , happenyng . A poete , to be a lier , a phisician , to be a man queller , or a lawyer , to be a thefe . By natural kynd . A man , a woman . By yeres . A yong man , an olde man . By condicion of life . A poore man , a riche man , a freeman , a bonde man .

¶ The maner of doyng , in latin called . Actio .

A Gere , seu facere , is whan we are saide to be occupied in a matter that is before vs , or whan oure labor is extended vpon a weaker or lesse thing , and in this place , ar conteyned al verbes actiues , as to write , to dispute , to banket , to beget , to encrease , to diminishe , or to chaunge , and to speake at a word , al those are conteyned in this place , which answere to this question , what doth he , or what doth it , excepted alwaye verbes perteinynge to the senses or affections , as to heare , to tast , to see , to enuye , al which haue the passiue significacion .

Euery action is either naturall , or voluntary . That is called natural , whiche is done by the mighte of nature , as to begette , or to bring forth , to encrease , or decrease , to alter by qualite , as to be moyst , drye , colde , or hotte , to moue from place , to place . That is called voluntarie , which doth betoken any thing done freely , as to teache , to write , to reade , to playe the marchaunt man , or to do any other action . And hereunto maye be referred euerye mans deutie lyuyng .

¶ Perpessio called in Englishe a sufferynge .

PAti , fieri , seu accipere , to suffer , to be done , or to take , is the effecte of the action , and to make it ●lai●e , it is a verbe passiue , euen the ●ame , which the grammarians vse , as to ●e taught , to be encreased , to be diminished , all these are passiues , and are referred to this predicament .

Vbi . Where .

VBi is an order , or predicament , whiche comprehendeth the description of places , wherin some ●hyng is reported either to be done , to ●aue ben done , or els hereafter , to be ●one . As to be at London , to be at Cā●rydge , to be at home , to be in a cham●er , to be aboue , beneth , on the righte hand , lefte hand , before , or behinde , and what soeuer is answered to this question , whan I aske where any thynge is , or where any thyng is done . This place wel serueth for coniectures , either ●n praysyng or dispraisyng .

Quando . When.

THis Predicament Quando , conteineth the difference , & diuersite of times , as . Nunc , Nowe Heri , yesterdaye , noctu , in the night time , Interdiu , in the day tyme . This place also gyueth lighte to confirme causes . As to proue that one is paineful , I may say such a one studieth day , and night , so muche as nature can beare . Therfore he is a payneful man .

Situm esse , to be settled .

Situm esse , is than considered , whan a mans body is in any wyse place , a● to lie a syde , to stande vpright , to sitte , to leane , to lye grouelyng , to lye wyde open .

Habitus , the araiyng or clothyng .

SOme call this Predicament Habitus , integumentum , that is a coueryng or apparelynge of any body , as to haue a coate to weare a goune , to be harneysed , to haue a iacke , a sheart of mayle , a cote armoure . Also to go gorgiously , as to weare cheines of golde● to haue braselets , rynges , ouches , & stones , to hau● asceptre or mace in his hand . Thirdly to possesse gold , siluer , land , wyfe , and children , or to contayne any thynge , as the hogges head dothe hold wyne , the barne holdeth corne . &c.

¶ The vse and commoditie of these Predicamentes .

IF you will define any worde , & knowe the propre nature of the same , ye must nedes know these ten Predicamentes . As for an example , if ye will knowe what a man is , ye muste haue recourse to the place ●f Substantia , and there ye shall learne ●y the same place that man is a liuyng creature endued with reason If ye wil knowe what vertue is , ye must go to the Predicamente Qualitas , and there ye shall se , that vertue is a constant habite of the mind , makyng them praise worthye in whom it is . If ye wil define the nature of a father , seke for Relatiua , and there ye shal learne that he is a father , that hath a sonne , he is a maister , that hath a seruaunt , and so forthe in the realte . Therfore ye muste nedes haue these Predicamentes readye , that whan so euer ye wyll define any worde , or geue a natural name vnto it , ye maye come to this store house , and take stuffe at wyll .

Of a diffinition .

THere is nothyng in all this whole art of logique more necessarie for man to know , than to learne diligentlye the defifinition , and diuision of euerye matter that by reason maye be comprehended . For he that firste well vnderstandeth what he doth go about , ( knowyng fullye the nature of euery cause propounded , ) shal lesse erre in the whole discourse folowing , and easie shal it be for him to auoyde false argumentes , if he can lear●e firste to se the verye nature , & substantial propretye of euery thyng .

A definition is .ii. wayes considered , for either it is a defi●ition of a worde , or of a substaunce . A definition of a word , is any maner of declaration of a word , as , a Realme , is so called by cause it is by a kynge ruled , and meryly to saie it , A woman hath her name so giuen her , by cause she bringeth wo vnto man .

A definition of the substaunce , is a speach , which sheweth the very nature of the thyng , & euery perfect definition is made perfect by the generall worde , and his difference ioyned together .

So that what soeuer is defined , it is ●l wayes the kynde or sorte of some ●hyng , as thus . Man is a lyuyng crea●ure endued with reason : man , is the ●hyng defined , and the other ( that is , a ●●uing creature endewed with reason ) ●●s the definition .

There be .iiij. rules to be obserued ●n euery perfecte definition . Firste ●hat the definition conteyne no more than the thing defined , nor yet that the thyng defyned , conteine any more than ●he definition dothe . Againe we muste ●ake hede , that the definition expresse ●he very nature , and substaunce , of the ●hynge defined , or els it is no good ●efinition .

Thirdly , we must see that the definition be plaine , and open , without ambiguitie , not hauynge anye obscure or ●ar fetched wordes .

O● a diuision .

IT is an old saiyng . Qui bene distinguit , bene docet . He that doth well diuide , doth teache well . And Socrates in Phedro Platonis praisyng muche the maner of diuidyng saith at length , that if he kne● a man whiche coulde well deuide , and seuerallye set euery thyng in his place , he woulde followe hym as though● he shuld follow god himselfe . In what miserable blindnes ware we , yf we knewe not the difference betwixt the law , and the gospel , the whiche onelye we do knowe by the benefite of diuision . There be manye fonde people whiche haue muche dispraised all temporal lawes , & ciuile lawes , thinkyng● it mete that al common weales should onlye haue the gospell , and none other ●awe at all . This maye seme to some a gaie saie●ge , where as in dede it is bothe folishe , and wicked . For ther is a difference betwi●te Politicall lawes , and the gospel : For the politicall lawe dothe cause an outwarde discipline to be obserued euen of the wycked , so that thei dare not offende outwardlye for feare of corporall punishement . The magistrate whiche hath this charge is ordeyned of god , and first his charge is to sette forth the ten commaundementes geuen to Moses , in the stony ta●es , and to cause the same to be obser●●d vniuersallie , punishyng the offen●urs for their euil dedes corporallye . ●fter this he must enacte other parti●●lar lawes , as occasion shall serue ●hich do not dissent from these .x. con●●●eryng these lawes are generall , and therefore particular thynges maye be ●●awen out of them . As where it is s●●d . Thou shalt do no thefte , the ma●●trate seynge falsehode in bargay●yng , and muche disceipte vsed to de●aude one , an other , straight causeth ● to be proclaimed that all suche as v●● disceipt in bargaynyng , committe ●efte , a●d shal be attainted therupon ●● felc●s , the whiche man in so doyng h●th fulfilled goddes commaund●ment . Nowe againe , as for the preachynge of the Godspell , it is an other maner of thyng , for thereby sinnes ar forgiuen . ●e inheritaunce of lyfe euerlastynge ●●aunted , and an euer liuyng Churche ●f mankynd gathered to be Goddes ●●osen people , and also the true knowl●ge of God , perfite rightuousnes , and the hope of life euerlasting , is kindled in the hartes of al godlie through the power of goddes holie ghoste . But there be fewe that will obey wyllynglie , and with all ther hartes , the wordes of the gospell in suche wyse .

Neither can any Lawe be able violentlye to force the inward thought of man . Therfore the outward magistrat though he cannot binde mens consciences from the thing that is euil , yet doth he muche to with draw them from doyng euil , and in dede if lawes ware , not men coulde not liue . Therfore the political regiment , and the gospell are .ij. diuerse thynges . This ●horte distinction geueth a lighte to many waightie matters , the which thyng whan men know not , they wander in greate darkenesse , and for lacke of light , faull in to error .

What a diuision is .

A Diuision is a diuidynge of that whiche is more commune , into those whiche are lesse common . As a definition therfore dothe declare what a thyng is , so the diuision sheweth howe many thynges are contayned in the same .

A diuision , is either the deuidyng of a worde , or of a thyng . A diuision firste of a word , is when any worde that signifiyng diuerse thynges , is deuided into euery seueral signification that he hath , as if I would deuide this word , Canis , into a dog , a fish of the sea , and a starre in the Elemente , thus might I say , Canis is either a dog that liueth vpon the yearth , or els a starre in the elemente .

A diuision of the thyng is .iij. wayes considered , for either it is whan the generall is deuided into his kynde , the whole into his partes , or els whan the substaunce is deuided into his accidentes . The generall is deuided into his kynde thus , as an Element is deuided into the fier , the aier , the water , and the yearth . A common weale is deuided into the state of people whiche beare rule , & also into that powre where the beste , and wisest haue the gouernaunce , and thirdly into ones hande whiche alone beareth the stroke and is chief magistrate . Of liuyng creatures some are endued with reason , some are with out reason .

The whole is diuided into his partes as thus . The body is diuided into the head , bealie , handes , & feete . A man is deuided into bodie , and soule , & this kynde of deuidyng is proprelie called Partitio . And the very difference betwixt diuisio , and partitio is , that in a deuision where the general , and the kynde are , the generall worde is spoken of the kynde it self , as . Iustitia est virtus . Iustice is a vertue , where as it cannot be so , when the whole is deuided into his partes , that the whole should be spoken of his part , as I can not saye , Caput est homo . the head is man . For the head is not man , nor yet the bealy , al though they both be partes of man . We haue euermore nede of this Partition in all matters . The law of Moses is deuided into .iij. partes , for either it is Morall , Iudiciall , or Ceremonial , neither is this Partition necessarie for Moses common weale only , but for all other regimentes that be . The morall law standeth for euer , and is not altered at any time but is receyued from tyme , to tyme , euen as Moses receyued the same of God in stony tables . The Iudiciall law is next , the which although we be not bound to obserue as the Israelites ware , yet must ther be actes of Parliamente made for the reformacion of thinges that be amisse , and Magistrates apointed to punysh such as breake the ten commaundementes , called the morall lawe , and euen so maie we iudge of the Ceremoniall Lawe . that although it appertaine nothing to vs to kepe suche Ceremonies as Moses , and Aaron haue enacted , yet it is nedefull that there be an ordre in al our doings and that we resort together to the temple reuerently , and that the Parentes appoint their children a tyme to learne at schole , and for their seruauntes a tyme to do their true seruice .

The substaunce is deuided into his accidentes , as thus , of men , som are fre , some are bo●de .

¶ An other maner of deuiding there is contrary to this , as when the accidentes are deuided into there substaunces , as thus . Of good thinges some are of the mind , some of the bodie , and some of fortune . Also there is a deuision when accidentes are deuided into accidentes , as of good thinges , some are honeste , some profitable , and some plesaunt .

¶ Rules necessarie to be obserued in euerie diuision .

FIrst it must be prouided that the diuision as muche as maie be ( for it cannot alwaies be so ) ought to be made with twoo contrary differences , fully containyng in them self the whole cumpasse or widenes of the generall worde , or that which is deuided , for it is a fault to forget any thyng , or let slip any part .

Againe the differences whiche deuide the generall worde , beyng ioined both together , must be egall to the said generall worde , and the partes coupeled together , must be asmuche as the hoole , or els the diuision is not good . A liuyng creature is deuided into his twoo differences , as into a thyng hauyng reason , and a thyng that hath no reason . Nowe what so euer is a liuyng creature , the same is a thyng that either hath reason or els that lacketh reason . And agayne euerie thyng that is endewed with reason , and without reason , that same is a liuing creature . So that in euerie diuision , the membres , or partes that dooe deuide , by conuersion are turned with the thyng deuided , euen likewise it is with partition , as I haue spoken before of deuision . Where as logike hath two partes , Iudgement and findyng o●t of thynges , euen as I saie logique is nothing els but iudgement , and findyng out of thynges , so of the other side , iudgement , and findyng out of thinges , is nothyng els , but logique it self . Wherby appereth a plain● conuersion , that what so euer the one is , the same is the other , whiche thyng must diligentlie be obserued in euerie diuision . Fo● if the membres that do deuide , be either more or lesse than the thyng deuided : streight waie the diuision is not good , for accordyng to a Precept that we haue in latine . Memb●a diuidentia semper cum diuiso conuerti debent . The partes that do deuide must alway be equall with the thyng deuided , and turned by conuersion with the same , or els the diuision is not lawfull .

¶ The maner of handeling a single Question , ●nd the readie waie howe to teache and sette forth any thyng plainlie , and in order , as it should be , in latine Methodus .

IN handeling of any single question , the preceptes and rules geuen before in the commune wordes , in the moste generall wordes , in the definition , and diuision , doe very good seruice , and helpe towardes the orderyng of euery suche mater . The whole nature of suche questions are thoroughlie sene by vsyng of this order . Euery single question is eight waies examined , first to aske whether the thing be , or no. As thus . Is there any one man that maye be called wise ? Is there any lawe ? Is there any frendship vpon yearth ? This question is often proued , either by experience , or els by authoritee of the wise . Therfore in questionyng what the thyng is , we muste declare the very nature● as if I shall speake of frendshippe , I will first be at a pointe of what frendshyp I must speake . For frendship is of two sortes . The one is true & perfect frendshippe , whiche commeth from the hart for vertues sake , and is onely among good men : the other is fay●ed fauour , when one for lucre beareth a fayre face outwardely , and fedeth inwardly a maliciouse stomake . And this is the commune frendshippe , wherof the wicked onely are partakers . The seconde question is , to aske what a thyng is . And this cometh from the definition , whiche is of two sortes . either of the substaunce of any thyng , or els of the name . Of the name as thus , a realme is that countrey whiche is ruled by a kyng . Of the substance thus . A realme is a gatheryng of people together , beyng able to liue , and withstande other for preseruation of themselues , abiding seuerall . The law is an ordina●●ce which commaundeth thynges in ordre , to be done , and forbiddeth the contrary . The third question is , when the partes , and euery seuerall kynde is considered , & for this question the deuision and partition dooe much good . As the lawe of the Gospell and the politicall lawe . The fourthe question is to aske what are the causes , and especially what is the efficient cause , and what is the finall cause , or the ende of any thyng . The efficient cause of all good lawes , is God , and his minister . The finall cause , or the end , is to liue vprightlie in the feare of God , and to walke all the daies of our life in the obseruacion of his holy will . The fifte question is , when the effecte , the office , or propre workyng is examined . As the effecte of the lawe is , to conserue the state of man to continue peace vniuersally , to encreace wealth , and make loue betwixt all . The syxt question is when thinges be asked that happen after , or the which haue great affinite , or likelyhode together . As if lawes be kept and folowed , we se our childrens children waxe to welth . We se muche neyghbourhode and good will to helpe the needie , & so forth . The seuenth is to aske what are disagreyng . As from the lawe , dissenteth rebellion , stubbournesse , pryde , with other . The eight question is to bryng in witnesse , & to showe by whose authoritee the lawe taketh place . The scripture teacheth that God gaue the lawe to Moses , and Poule with Peter also , and Christ himself commaunded euery man to obeye the higher power in all thynges , that are not directely repugnaunt from the wil of God . Thus ●he question is eight waies examined , and the maner taught thereby to frame it in dewe ordre , so that he whiche kepeth well this trade , can not faile in ani cause that he taketh in hand . And because they maie the rather be remembred , I wil sette them altogether .

As touching the lawe .8 . waies . 1● whether it is or no 2. what it is● 3. what are the parte● . 4● what are the causes . ● . what are the effectes or propre workyng . 6 What are next adioyning , what are like , what happen therbi 7 What do disagree , or what are contrarie . ● . What example there is , or authorite to proue it .

And this lesson ought diligentlie to be learned of al , that euermore thei beginne from the generall , and come to euery seuerall parte . As in declaryng what vertue is , first to tell the nature of it generally , and after to handle euery vertue by it selfe . And this order both Tullie hath folowed in his boke de officijs , and also Aristotle in hys Ethikes hath done the like , to the great admiration of al those that be learned .

¶ Of a proposition .

EUen the very ordre of nature requireth that first of all we should speake of seuerall wordes , and as a man woulde saie , teache one his lettres , and teache hym the maner of spelling , before we teache him to rede , and afterward ioyne sentences together , & frame propositions by knittyng seuerall woordes in ordre , for it is the very office of the mind first to knowe , and then to knitte● neyther can any chylde vtter a sentence , before he learne to speake a worde . Againe , when nature hath taught seueral wordes , then the minde ioyneth to guether , deuideth , and afterwarde geueth a Iudgement whether they be well or no. For a man ware litle better then a brute beaste , if he could but onelie apprehende seueral wordes , hauing no gifte , or aptnes to ioyne them in order , and to iudge howe thynges are ioyned together . But seyng God hath kindeled th●s light in man , that he can both ioyne , and iudge , we will nowe speake of the knittyng together , & the ioynyng of wordes in a proposition .

¶ What a Proposition is .

A Proposition is a perfite sentence spoken by the Indicatiue mode , signifiyng either a trewe thyng , or a false , without al ambiguitie , or doubtfulnes . As thus , euery man is a liar .

There be two partes in a proposition , the one is called Subiectum ( that is to saye that where of sumwhat is spoken , ) the other is attributum , commonly called predicatum , that is to sai , that whiche is spoken of any thyng , as in the aboue rehersed proposition . Euery man is a liar , Man , is that whereof this saiyng ( to be a liar ) is spoken , and this same saiyng ( to be a liar ) is that whiche is spoken of man .

Euerie proposition is two waies deuided , either it is a single sentence , standing of one perfect sentence , as Iustice is a vertue , or els it is a double sentence hauyng two propositions in it , as thus . If iustice be a vertue , it is a good thing prayse worthie .

That proposition is called false , the which either naturall reason proueth to be plaine false , or the experience of man declareth to be vntrue , as thus . The stone doth feale . the soule of man is mortall . Experience showeth the soule to be immortall , and nature teacheth vs that no stone hath the sence of fealyng .

The second diuision of a Proposition .

AGaine Propositions do either affirme , or denie , as this proposition . Pleasure is a good thing , dothe affirme that pleasure is good . Againe , pleasure is not a good thyng , doth denie that pleasure is good . That Proposition doth affirme , when any thing is reported to be in any thing That Proposition doth denie , when any thyng is denied to be in any thing .

¶ The third deuision of a Proposition .

THirdly al Propositions ar either , generall , particular , indiffinite , or singular● Those Propositions ar called general , or vniuersal , the which haue a general signe ioyned to the first parte of the Proposition , as thus . Euery couetous man is poore . No man both loueth , and is wise . No man is euermore happie . General signes are these● Omnis , Nullus , Quilibet , Nemo . Euery bodie , nobodie , all the world , not one in all the world .

Particular propositions are these , where a particular signe is added to the former parte of the Proposition , which doth not conteine al but a part or a fewe , as thus . Some men feare God . Some men are to muche desierous of glory . The particular signes be these . Quidam , Aliquis , Plerique , Plerunque . A certain man , some bodie , all men for the most part , oftentymes .

The Propositions are called Indefinite ( that is to say , vncertain ) where the former part of the Proposition is a generall woorde without a signe , as thus . The soule is immortall . Manhode is a vertue . One man is better then an other . Old men are couetous . And note this diligently , that those Indefinite Propositions ( whose laste rehersed parte is necessary , and is so spoken of the former part , that it doth alwaie agree to the same , and to the whole nature of the same ) do implie as muche as a generall propositino , as in the aboue rehersed Proposition . The soule is immortal . this word ( to be immortall ) whiche is spoken of the soule , agre●h not to one man , or to certaine , but to euery man liuyng . when the Accidentes are spoken of the former part , it implieth as muche as a particular Proposition doth . as● Homo homini prestat ingenio , virtute , doctrina . ( Some man is better then an other in witte , learnyng , and vertue , ) is no more to say , than Quidam homo homini prestat . Some one man is better then an other .

A singular Proposition , is when a propre name of a man is conteined in a Proposition , and is the former part of the same , as . Cicero est Orator . Cicero is an Oratour . Alexander est bellicosus . Alexander is a warriour .

The repu●naunce of Propositions

Repugnancie , is the diuersitee of .ij. propositions , which haue both one subiectum , ( called the former part , ) & one attributum , which is the rehersed part , and in sence spoken of the former .

There be .iiij. in nombre , called in Latine . Contrariae , Subcontrariae , Contradictoriae , and Subalternae .

Generall contrarie Proposicions , are those , whereof the one doth affirme , & the other doth denye , as thus . Omnes homines gloria ducuntur , All men are moued with glory . Nulli homines gloria ducuntur , No men are moued with glory .

Particular contrarie , are twoo Particulars , whereof the one doth affirme , the other doth deny . Aliqui homines gloria ducuntur , Some men are moued with glory . Aliqui homines gloria non ducuntur , Some men are not moued with glory .

Contradictory Proposicions are , when the one is Uniuersal affirmatiue , and the other Particular negatiue . or els when the one is Uniuersal negatiue , and the other Particular affirmatiue , as thus . Omnes homines gloria ducuntur● All men are moued with glory . Aliqui homines gloria non ducuntur . Some men are not moued with glory , and likewyse backeward .

Subalternae are those , whiche be either Uniuersall affirmatiue , & Particular affirmatiue , or els vniuersall negatiue , and particular negatiue .

¶ A single P●oposicion , is thre waies denided .

PRopositio Categorica ( other wise called a single Proposition ) is deuided into , true and false Propositions .

They are true Propositions , whiche agre to the matter , and are either necessarie , or els such as maie be either true , or false , called in Latine fortuitae or contingentes .

Necessarie Propositions , are assuredly true , and knowen so to be either by nature , or els by experience .

Of those that necessarily be knitte together are these . The propre name , the kynde , the generall worde , the difference , the propretie , the definition , the causes , the propre worke of causes , and some Accidentes that euer tarie , as thus , Cicero est homo , Cicero is a man . Homo est animal ratione praeditum , aptum ad risum , A man is a liuyng creature , endued with reason , apt to laugh . Dies est necessario , quoniam Sol exoriens est , It must nedes be day , because the Sonne is vp . Ignis calidus est , Fier is hotte .

Those Propositions are chaungeable , whiche may be true , or chaunce to be so ; as . Pecunia est bonum , Mony , is a good thyng . & whersoeuer the Accident is spoken of that which conteineth hym : euery suche Proposition is called chaunceable or that which may be true , as : Water is made whot ; here we see that it chaunceth to water ( contrary to her nature ) to be warme , and therefore it is called chaunceable as the which maie chaunce● or be chaunged .

The Table of repugnaunt Propositions .

HEre we must be diligent that in all such repugnauncie of Propositions , there be no doubtfulnes in any worde , and that alwaies there be one maner of woordes that go before , and also one maner of wordes that ende the sentence , plainly and without double vnderstandyng . This diuersite of Propositions is very necessary to discerne , the truth , from that which is false , for when we ioyne two Propositions that are dissonant , we shal easely trie the chaffe from the corne , the which when we haue done , we maie the better , sticke to the truth with full assente , the contrary beyng ones disclosed and reiected .

¶ De Conuersione , of the turnyng of Propositions .

COnuersion , is the chaungyng or alteryng of wordes in a Proposicion , when the former part ( wherof any thyng is rehersed ) and the hynder parte ( which is rehersed of the former ) are chaunged , the one , into the others place .

There be .iij. maner of Conuersions , Simplex , per Accidens , per Contrapositionem .

A plaine Conuersion is , when both the Proposition● are like in all thy●ges , both in signes , and also in affirmacion , or negation , sauing onely that of the last rehersed , is made the former part of the sentence , & the former part , is made the last rehersed part .

Suche Conuersion is made , when both Propositions be either Uniuersall negatiues , or els particular affirmatiues , for the first thus . Nemo timens Deum , contaminat se adulterio . Ergo , Nemo contaminans se adulterio timet Deum . No man that feareth God , de●ileth him self with adultrie● therfore , no man that defileth him self with adultrie , feareth God . Here we maie see the Conuersion plaine , as the rule aboue rehersed teacheth . For ij . particular affirmatiues , this shal be an example . Quidam aulici , boni sunt . Ergo quidam boni , aulici sunt . Some courtiers are honest , Ergo some honest men are courtiers .

A Conuersion by Accident , is when the former parte of the sentence , is made the last rehersed parte , and the last rehersed parte , made the former part , both the Propositions affirmyng , or deniyng , sauyng onely that the signes bee chaunged , that is the one beyng Uniuersall , the second beyng Particular . First a Conuersion is made of .ij. affirmatiues , thus . Omnis virtus est laudanda , Ergo laudandum aliquid , est virtus . All vertue is to be praised , therefore some thing to be praised is a vertue . A conuersion of .ij. negatiues , thus . Nemo malus foelix , foelix igitur ( sapiens cum sit ) non est malus . No euill man is absolutely happy . Therfore an absolute happie man ( consyderyng he is wise ) cannot be euill . This kynde of Conuersion is very profitable for him that wil dispute . for where as we reason often from the general worde , to the kynde , we must nedes vse this maner of Conuersion , as thus . If al exercise be good , then this exercise is good , and so of other .

A Conuersion by contraposition , is when the former part of the sentence is turned into the last rehersed parte , and the last rehersed part , turned into the former parte of the sentence , both the propositions being vniuersall , and affirmatiue , sauyng that in the second Proposition there be certaine negatiues enterlaced , as thus .

Omnis homo auet aliquid videre , audire , scire .

Ergo quod non auet aliquid videre , audire , scire , non est homo .

Euery man desireth to se , to heare , or to know somwhat , therfore what soeuer he is that desiereth not to see , to heare , or to know somwhat , that same bodie is not a man . This Conuersion is profitable , and serueth well to reason by . thus reasoneth Christ by this Conuersion against the Iewes in the viij . Chapter of Iohn● Qui ex Deo est , verba Dei audit , vos igitur cum non audiatis , ex Deo non estis . He that is of God , heareth the woordes of God , You therefore because you heare not , be not of God . This Conuersion co●futeth the Iewes plainly , & proueth that they are not of God . Yf , we will reason from the general worde to the kynd , or from the greater , to the lesse , we may vse this Conuersion very wel . Omnis homo est animal , Ergo quodcnnque non est animal , id nec homo est . Euery man is a liuing creature , therefore what soeuer thyng is not a liuyng creature , that same is not a man . Take away the general worde , and there can no kynde remaine at all . From the superior vniuersall , to the inferior , thus we maie reason . All pure golde loketh yealowe , therefore what soeuer loketh not yealowe , that same is not pure golde . This Conuersion serueth wel to make an Argument in the second figure , as I will declare hereafter , the whiche ought diligently to be obserued .

Propositio Hypothetica , that is to say a double Proposition .

PRopositio Hypothetica , is a sentence with two single Propositions knit together alwaies , with some Coniunction , as thus . Si iustitia est virtus , est laudabilis . If iustice be a vertue , it is praise worthie .

¶ There be .iii. maner of double Propositions .

A Double Proposition standet● of .iij. partes , wherof the one is a conditionall Proposition , affirming a thing to be either true or false , with an ( if . ) As thus . Yf faith be vpon the yearth , some men feare God . Yf the worlde continue stil as it doth , walowyng in most abhominable synne , God wil at length punishe the offenders very sore . All which Propopositions are euer true , when the partes are so knit together : that the latter parte , must nedes folowe vpon that , which goeth before . The second part is , when a Proposition hath a disiunctiue , which knitteth the sentence vp , as thus . Either it is daie , or els it is night . Suche Propositions are true , when bothe the partes are true , & the same also are false , when either of the partes are false . The thirde parte is , when coniunctions that do denie are ioyned toguether , as thus . Battail beyng not laufull , is not to be desiered .

By all which double Propositions wee maie reason formally in diuerse causes , is thus by the first . If faith be vpon the yearth , some men feare God , but no man feareth God , therfore faith is not vpon the yerth . Again , if we feare God , we are in charite , but we are not in charitie . Therefore we feare no● God . By the seconde thus . Either it is daie , or els it is night , but it is daie , Therfore it is not night . Couetouse men either be the seruauntes of God , or els of the Deuill , but they are not the seruantes of God : Ergo , they are the seruauntes of the Deuill . By the third thus . Battail beyng not lauful , is not to be vsed , but battail is lauful Therfore it is to be vsed .

Of makyng an Argument .

I Haue rehersed hetherto al single wordes , what the nature is of euery one , & in what general worde they may be founde . I haue set forthe the nature of a definition , and a diuision . I haue taught also to ioyne these seuerall wordes into a proposition , and to make the same a perfect sentence . Nowe therfore by goddes grace , I wyll shewe the maner how to ioyne sentences together , and to proue a matter by knittyng proposicions handesomely in an argument , or els to confute any thing that a man list , by placing the proposicions accordingly . Therefore there ought good diligence to be vsed in this behalf , for as muche as it is the clerkliest part of al , and the hardest piece of worke , to frame an argument aptly , & to know the very reason , why thynges are so knit together .

¶ What an argument is .

An argument , is a waie to proue how one thyng is gathered by another , and to shewe that thyng , whiche is doubtfull , by that whiche is not doubtful .

¶ To finde out the reason , that shall proue , ( in Latine ) called medium , ( in Englishe ) the double repete .

After this sort we maie finde the reason , whereby to proue our matter . When we haue a question or sentence , that we would either confirme , or confute , Aske the cause of our selfe , why , and wherefore that thyng , whiche is spoken of the former parte in any sentence , should be so applied to thesame . And to make the matter more plain , I will make this question . Est ne auarus pauper ? Is a couetous man poore or not ? I maie thus reason with my self . why shoulde a couetous man be called poore , what affinitie is betwixt theim twoo ? marie in this poynct , thei bothe agree , that like as the poore man , euer lacketh and desireth to haue : so the couetous manne euer lacketh , wantyng the vse of that whiche he hath , and desirereth stil to haue , beyng neuer content though god geue enough . Then seyng it is euen so , that bothe doe lacke , and bothe do desire to haue : this same reason is the onely cause , whereby myne argument is made perfect . For thus I maie frame myne argument aptly .

Whosoeuer lacketh , & desireth euermore to haue , that same man is poore .

A couetous man lacketh , & desireth euermore to haue .

Therfore a couetous man is poore .

Thus this argument is made perfect by askyng this question , wherfore a couetous man is poore ? As hereafter I wil shewe it more at large , by other examples , ●o make the thyng more plain .

¶ There be foure kyndes of argumentes . Syllogismus a perfect argum● Enthymema , an vnperfect argum● Inductio , an induction . Exemplum . an example .

SYllogismus , is an argument wherby the last sentence , whiche we would proue , is confirmed by other proposicions , and sentences , more vniuersall , and better knowen , then the thyng whiche is proued : conteinyng in themselfes the reason , why the laste sentence is true , and why thei are applied to the same . This kynd of argument , is from the general worde , to the kynde , as thus . If I wil proue theft worthie of punishement , I must first aske the question , why ? & that thyng that commeth to my mynd , more vniuersall then theft , cōprehēdyng the offence of theft in it , maie serue to make the argument . As I maie thus reason , that theft should be punished , because it is a vice , or a mischeuous deede , and then thus I knit vp myne argument .

Euery vice or mischeuous diede is to be punished .

Theft is a vice , or a mischeuous diede .

Therefore thefte is to be punished .

Here we se thre proposicions , or sentences , whereof the first is called Maior , that is to saie , the proposicion at large . the seconde is called Minor , that is to saie , the seuerall proposicion . the thirde is called conclusio . that is , the lappyng vp of all . And here we muste note , that like as there be thre Propositions , euen so there bee thre diuerse endynges , called in Latine , Termini , of the which , th one is called the terme at large , in the first proposicion onely , and afterwarde is referred , to the former part of the conclusion , called subiectum conclusionis . The second terme is called the seuerall , whiche is in the second proposicion , & this is the worde whereof the question is made , & is spoken of in the conclusion . The thirde is called the double repeate , whiche is twise rehersed , before the conclusion , and therefore it is twise rehersed , because it is the knitting together , of the ij . proposicions , and the cause , why the former part of the proposicion , ( wherof a thyng is saied , ) and the last rehersed part , ( beyng attributed to the part goyng before , ) are ioyned together in the conclusion . As to make the thyng plain by the former argument , I will proue this conclusion . Thefte is to be punished . Thefte is called the former parte whereof this worde ( punished ) is spoken , and this worde ( punished ) therefore is called the last rehersed part , because it is spoken of theft , which went before . Now to make my argument , and to proue this sentence true , I must seke a worde , whiche is more generall then that , whiche is proued . And that worde that commeth to my mynd , & is perteinyng to the cause , beyng more vniuersall : ( for euery thyng that is proued , is proued by a thyng more knowen ) that same worde or reason , is called the double repete . whose propertie is twise to be rehersed in an argument , and that in the first and seconde proposicion , neuer enteryng into the conclusion , as thus . Euery vice is to bee punished , ( vice ) is the double repete , which must be rehersed in the seconde proposicion , ( for I saied before ) it must be twise rehersed because it maie be euident , that the former ●art of the conclusion , is in very deede comprehended , vnder the former part of the first proposicion . And then the argument is made as foloweth .

Euery vice is to be punished

Theft is a vice .

Ergo it is to be punished .

Here we se the double repete ( whiche proueth the matter ) is twise rehersed in the first , and second proposicion , and entereth not into the conclusion . The terme at large , is in the first proposicion , and the terme seuerall , is in the second proposicion , and enter both into the conclusion . So that we maye se that , whiche proueth the thyng , doth not entre into the conclusion , but is twise rehersed in the two propo●iciōs , and so the conclusion foloweth , by reason that these twoo woordes , vice , and theft , agree in a third altogether , and whatsoeuer is saied of the one , is saied of the other , and nothyng can be comprehended vnder the generall , but all the kyndes haue thesame conteined in in theim , which in this proposicion , are r●ferred to the generall . ( Al vice is to be punished , vnto vice , is referred this worde punished ) therfore , whatsoeuer is comprehended vnder this worde , vice , as theft , adultery , wrong dealyng , murder , this worde punished , is rehersed of theim all : because it agreeth to the generall , & is rehersed of thesame . Therfore I reason thus . All vice is to bee punished .

Therfore Adultery● are to be punished Wrong dealyng . are to be punished Murder . are to be punished

For if that , whiche is general , is to be punished , then the kyndes , or sortes in thinges , are also to be punished . Accordyng to this saiyng . whatsoeuer is truely , and altogether rehersed , of the generall , that same also is rehersed of the kynde , whiche is included in the generall .

¶ There be . v●i . Rules , especially to bee obserued , for the makyng of ●n argument called Syllogismus .

FIrst , that in euery Syllogismus , the firste proposicion bee vniuersall I call that proposicion vniuersall , when there is omnis , that is to saie , all : or els nullus , that is to saie , none , in the proposicion . As for example . Euery vice is to be punished , this proposicion is vniuersall , because it hath omnis , in it , which signifieth all , or euery one . Likewise I call it perticular , when the proposicion hath quidam , or aliquis , that is to saie certaine , or some body , quidam aulici sunt honesti , some courtiers be honest .

¶ The se●ond rule .

If one of the proposicions be perticular , or negatiue , the conclusion is perticular , or negatiue , I call that proposicion negatiue , when nullus , or nemo , ( that is to say ) none , or no body , is in the proposicion . As nullus Christianus est foenerator , no Christian is an vsurer .

¶ The third rule .

In a Syllogismus , bothe the proposicions , can neither bee negatiues , nor yet particulars togethers , for euen as of two negatiues , there foloweth nothyng , so of two particulars , there foloweth nothyng . Therefore , when any suche argument is made , we maie boldely saie it is not lawful , because it is in no mode , as it is very plai●e to se in makyng of this argument folowyng .

Some Courtiers are riche .

I will be a Courtier .

Therefore I shal be riche .

Or this .

Some bishoppes are good .

Suche a one is a bishop .

Therfore he is a good bishop .

This argument is not lawful , first , bycause by my rule I am taught , that of pure particulars , nothyng doth folow , as Quidam ( somme ) is a particular Ego , I , is a singular word , or signignifieng asmuche as a propre name , & againe it is in no figure as hereafter I shal shewe . Thirdly it is mete that the firste parte of the seconde proposition shoulde be included in the first proposition , whereof some what is rehersed or els it is no good argument , in the first figure .

Some Kynges be righteous .

Nero is a Kyng .

Therfore Nero is righteous .

This is no good argument , bicause that Nero ( which is the first worde in the second proposition of whome some thing is rehersed ) is not comprehended vnder the former part of the firste proposition , which is Kynges , for this former part ( some kinges ) doth not speake of Nero , nor comprehend such as he is , but honest , and godly disposed gouernors . And yet in weightie causes suche argumentes haue been vsed , euen of those that would haue drawen vs from the obedience of gods holie worde , and persuaded some that we ware free from the obseruation of any one thyng comprehended in Moses lawes . As thus .

The lawe of Moses is abolished from the Gentiles .

The law of the .x. commaundementes is the lawe of Moses .

Ergo the law of the ten commandementes is abolished from the Gentiles .

Where as this first proposition comprehendeth not all the lawes of Moses , but the lawes ceremonialle whiche ware as figures ordeined in declacla●ation of Christes commynge , and therfore the scripture saith vntyll Ihon , the lawe was , and the Prophetes , signifiyng that in Ihons tyme he was come , in whome the olde ceremonial lawes ware fully verified and fulfilled , whiche at his commyng beganne to cease , seyng he himselfe was the fulfillyng of the lawe , not that we should not obserue the morall lawes of the heauenlye preceptes commaunded by God , for Christ hymselfe repeteth the obseruacion of them , yea and byndeth vs to a more straightnesse , that not only we should do none euill , but that also we shoulde consent to none euyll , therfore this firste proposition , is not general , but particular , and so though the ceremoniall lawe be gone , yet the morall lawe taryeth still accordyng to Christes holye wyll .

Medius terminus , called the double repete ( whiche is a worde rehersed in both propositions ) must not entre into the conclusion , because the other two partes , called termini , be proued by this , and brought to the conclusion , by reason they agree with this thirde , the whiche two otherwise could not entre into the conclusion , if this double repete were not mencioned in both propositions , and kept out it selfe from the conclusion , as is euidently to se by an argumentacion .

¶ The fift Rule .

In an argument , called Syllogismus there ought not to be doubtfull wordes , or mo wordes in the conclusion then was before rehersed . For mo thinges to be in the conclusion , this example shall serue which An●honius maketh in the first boke of Tullie de oratore .

Unprofitable thynges are not to be taught .

In Philosophie are vnprofitable thinges .

Ergo philosophie is not to be taught

This argument is to be denied , because there is more in the conclusion , then was rehersed in the two first propositions . For this shuld haue bene the conclusion . Some vnprofitable thynges whiche be in philosophie , are not to be learned , not that philosophie it selfe is to be reiected , for els we myght make this argument likewise .

Dronkenes is not to be allowed .

In drinking is often times dronkenes .

Therfore drinkyng at any tyme is not to be allowed .

Therefore we must frame our argument so , that nothing be more in the conclusion , then was in the other propositions . As thus .

Dronkenes is not to be al-alowed .

In some drinkyng is oftentimes dronkenes .

Therefore some drinkyng is not to be allowed .

¶ The sixt Rule .

There ought not to be mo termes in an argumentacion then thre , for otherwise there is no good argument .

Euerie politicall Magistrate ought to kepe vnder disobedient persones , with corporall punishment .

Peter is an Apostle .

Therefore Peter shoulde punishe the disobedient .

In this argument , is no ioynyng together of the first proposition , and the second : for the politicall magistrate , & an Apostle , are two maner of thynges . Therfore it hangeth together like germaines lyppes as we vse to saye .

¶ The seuenth Rule .

The double repeate , which is twise mencioned in both propositions , ought to be no doubtfull worde , for doubtful wordes make foure seuerall termes whiche should not be , as thus .

No bondman is free .

All that beleue the Gospel truely , are free .

Ergo none that beleue the gospell truely , are bond men .

This argument is false , and must be de●ied at the first , because , there be foure termes , for in the first proposition , fredome , is taken for such a libertie as men do vse in common weales , to make seruauntes , and apprentises fre , in the seconde proposition , fredome is taken for deliueryng the soule from the wrath of God , from sinne , and from death euerlasting , as we rede in the scripture . Whom the sonne hath made free , they are fre in very diede , not that this fredome taketh away all orders in the common weale , that no man shall haue an apprentise , or a bond man . For although the father in heauen hath made them free from sinne , from death , and from the wrath of God , yet are they still apprentises , and bond by a political law● therfore we may see that there be .iiij. endynges or termes , consideryng he speaketh of one libertie in the first proposition , and of an other in the second , so that the argument is not good . A like argument there is , which one made to Diogenes .

That whiche I am , thou art not

I am a man .

Ergo thou art none .

Here is ambiguite in this verbe ( I am ) far if it be vnderstanded in the first proposition that this worde ( I am ) is not considered accordyng to the generall substaunce , but according to the qualitie , or rather propre beyng , speakyng of the diuersitie of men , as when I liue , I haue mine own bodie , my flesh , and mine owne bones , thou hast thyne also propre vnto the , and not that I am thou , nor thou art I. Then it is well sayde , that whiche I am , thou art not . But if I vnderstand this word ( I am ) in the first proposition as a substaunce vniuersall , or rather generall copulatiue , to be rehersed of the inferiors , them it is not good . For as I may saie , Diogenes is a man , Aristotle is a man , so I maie saye of al men . Whereby we may see here also foure partes , or endinges , and therfore the argument must be denied at the first , geuyng this reason that I haue shewed before .

Nowe that I haue set forth the preceptes whiche are to be obserued in an argument , I will declare howe to seat be & place an argument , that any bodie may geue a reason , why euery worde is set in an argument , in this , or that place . First therfore we must considre , there be foure figures , whiche serue for the makyng of an argument , & modes also , whiche teache the ordering of propositions whether they shal be vniuersal , particular , affirmatiue , or negatiue . I wil define them both after this sorte .

A figure is a lawfull placing of the double repeate , in the twoo propositions , and euen as the double repeate is placed , so we maie iudge with ease in what figure the argument is . The first figure is such an order of propositions in an argument , that the double repeate must be the former part in the first proposition , and the last rehersed parte in the second proposition , where vpon the conclusion doth folow . And the reason that it must be so , is because that where as in this figure the argument is euermore made from the generall , to the kynde vniuersally , ( for the first proposition euermore in these two figures must be vniuersal , either affirmatiue , or negatiue ) and because of the general worde , there is sumwhat rehersed of the kynde : one of the propositions must be so placed , that it may euidently appeare that the kynde is encluded in the general . And therfore the general is spoken in the seconde proposition of the kynde .

A mode , is a lawfull placing of propositions in there due qualitie , or quantitie . I call that in the proposition a qualitie , when it doth affirme or denie . I call it a quantitie , when it is either vniuersal , or particular . Unto the first figure belong foure modes , which may be perceiued by these .iiij. wordes .

Barbara . C●larent . Darij . Ferio .

THese foure wordes must not be forgotten if we wil make an argument truely in the first figure , for euery argument that is made in this figure , is in one of these foure modes , or els it is no argument of the first figure . If the double repete be the former parte in the first proposition , and the laste rehersed parte in the second proposition , it is in the first ●igure , notwithstandyng , except it be in mode also , it is no argument . Therefore we must learne to place an argument in mode also . And for the better knowledge of this thyng , note that in these wordes there be foure vowels to be considered , and marked . That is to saye , A , E , I , & , O. And where we see A in Barbara thrise , we must considre that these thre AAA in this one worde , declare vnto vs thre vniuersall propositions affirmatiue , E , declareth a proposition negatiue vniuersall . As in Celarent we se twise . E , whereby we are taught that the argument ( if we make it in this mode ) must haue two vniuersall negatiues , and one vniuersal affirmatiue , by reason of A , which is in the middest of Celarent . I dothe signifie a particular affirmatiue . O. doth signi●●e a particular negatiue , as in Ferio , the first must be a negatiue vniuersall , the second an affirmatiue particular , the third a negatiue particular . That these thynges may be more euident to make an argument , both in figure , and mode , I will gyue examples for euery mode of this figure , that one may plainely see the whole matter as though it were in a glasse , remembryng alwaies , that these modes serue for this figure , whiche figure is knowen ( as I sayd before ) when the double repete is the former part of the first proposition , and the last rehersed part of the second proposition . And where as I sayde before that certayne argumentes were in no mode , althoug they were in the first figure , and therefore not good because they were not both in one mode , and figure , these shal be to vnderstande , they were not in one mode , because the first proposition must be vniuersall euer , or els it is not good . Now therefore here folowe examples of the first figure and of the modes thereof .

Bar All honest thynges are to be embrased . ba All law made by a christian magistrate are honest . ra Therfor all lawes made by a Christian magistrate are to be embrased . Ce No contemner of the magistrate is a christian . la All Anabaptistes are contemners of the magistrate . rent Therfore no Anabaptiste is a Christian. Da Whatsoeuer deserueth the fauor and grace of god , the same only doth iustefy . ri Faith onely deserueth the fauor and grace of God . f Ergo faith only doth iustifie . Fe No extorcioner is godly . ri Some riche man is an extorcioner . o Ergo some riche men are not godlye .

The second figure is , where the the double repete is the last , rehersed parte in bothe propositions , after this sorte followynge , and there be .iiij. modes belongyng to the same figure , as it shal appere , whiche all they haue these iiij . vowels in them . A.E.I.O. so that they make the proposition to be vniuersal , or particular , affirmatiue , or negatiue , as it was before .

Note that the conclusion is alwayes negatiue , for asmuche as the firste , and the second , are alwayes repugnaunt , neither do they agree in the double repeate , called Medius terminus . And therfore the conclusion is negatiue by contraposition , wherof I spake before when I entreated of the conuersion or turnyng of propositions .

Ce No iust man , before god hath an vnquiet , and doubtful conscience . sa All they that trust to be iustified by their workes , haue vnquiet consciences . re Therfore none trusting to his workes , is iust before God . Ca The christian righteousnesse , is the purenesse of the mynde . mest To weare a tipete , a coule , a shauen croune , is not the purenes of the minde . tres Therfore the outwarde attyre is not the christian righteousnesse . Fes No true diuine contemneth philosophie . ti Some Englishe preachers contemne philosophie . no Ergo some Englishe preachers are no true diuines● Ba All christians refuse to gette goodes vngodlye ro Some vsures refuse not to gette goodes vngodlye . co Therfore some vsurers are no christians .

The .iij. figure is , where the double repete is the former part in bothe propositions . And ther be .vj. modes of the same figure . Note also that the conclusion muste nedes be par●icular , in this figure where ye●ormer part in both propositions is the double repete , for lyke as we reason in the first figure from the general word , to the kynd , that is from the vniuersal , to the particular , so in this figure we reason from the kynde ( which is lesse ) to the generall worde whiche is more vniuersall , but so not withstandynge , that the conclusion be particular . and therfore this kynde of argument is very good . For the Species , or kynd , beyng ones put , the generall , must nedes folowe .

Da Euery common weale hath nede of armour , and lawes . rap Euery common weale is goddes ordenaunce . ti Therfore lawes , and armour , are goddes ordenaunce . Fe No vertue should be eschued . lap All vertue hath her wo with her . ton Therfore some wo shoulde not be eschued . Di Mercie only forgyueth sinnes . sa Al mercie is purchased by faith . mis Therfore by faith onely forgyuenesse is obteyned . Da All those that thincke them selues holie by their beades , by our ladies fast , and by we aryng a heary shirte , are neither wyse nor godlye . ti Some priestes in Englande think no lesse . si Ergo some priestes are neither wise , nor godly . Bo Some battaill is not to be eschued . car Euery battail is full of moche miserie . do Ergo some miserie is not to be escheued . Fe None that beare any deadly malice , feare God . ti Some beare their neyghbours deadly malice . son Therfore some feare not God .

It is verye necessarie that there shuld be .iij. figures , as I haue shewed alreadye . for in euerye argument that hath the shape of a Sillogismus ( for the induction & the example haue it not , nether be thei in mode & figure ) euermore we reason from the general , to the kind vniuersal , makyng the conclusion vniuersal , or els we reason from the kynd , to the generall , makyng the conclusion particular , or els there is a repugnancie of the terme at large , and the seuerall , when they do not agree with the double repete , or laste of all we ioyne many causes , and many effectes together , wherof is made an argument , called Sorites , or coaceruatio , that is to say , a heapyng together of thinges

Whan we make an argument , and procede from the general worde , to the kynde , it is in the first figure . and euen by oure reason we learne this , that if the greater be not , the lesser cannot be . As thus , if one be no liuyng creature , howe can he be a man , if he be a liuyng creature , he muste either be a man or a brute bodye .

Whan we procede from the kynd , to the generall , makynge the conclusion particular , the argument is in the third figure . And this is for euer true , that whan the kynde is rehersed , the generall must nedes folow .

But whan there is a repugnauncie in an argument of the terme at large , and the seuerall , so that they agree not ●ith a thirde word , it is euer in the second figure . And this is playne to see that suche an argument must nedes be well concluded , whan we go about to co●●ute any thyng , seyng : that . i● . kyndes which are repugnaunt , must nedes be disseuered , and so the conclusion to be made vpon the same . As it is easie to se in the argumentes of the second figure . Therfore it is good reason that both there shoulde be two figures , and also that the argument doth well procede beyng made in any of them .

Some tymes an argument is made whan we couple many causes together & the very effectes of the same , as thus●

Ouermuche gourmandise hyndreth digestion in the stomake .

By euil digestion in the stomake , corrupte blod is e●gendred in the liuer .

When euill blode is brede in the liuer euill humours are spred through out all the bodye●

Euill humours spred through out the bodie , cause a distemperature in the bodie , and after that bryng the dropsey .

Therfore ouermoche gourmandise causeth dropsey .

Of an halfe argument called Enthimema .

AN halfe argument , is an argument vnperfect , the whiche is , whan one proposition is rehersed , and the conclusion straight brought in there vpon , as thus . That is not good whiche bryngeth a man to mischefe . Therfore money is not good● The bible teacheth a man his duetye towardes god , and his neighbour , Ergo it is necessary to be knowen , & read of euery bodye . Pleasure bryngeth endeles payne after it , Ergo pleasure is to be eschued . These argumentes behalfe argumentes , wantyng one proposition euermore , the whiche if we adde a perfecte argumentation foloweth therupon , as thus .

Whatsoeuer bryngeth endlesse payne after it , that same is to b● e●chued .

Pleasure bryngeth endelesse payne after it .

Ergo pleasure is to be eschued .

These half imperfect Argumentes called Enthymemata , consiste partely of likelyhodes , and partely of infallible reasons .

Likelyhodes , are those , that often hitte the trueth , & yet are not alwaies so , as thus .

Such a youngman talketh often , and that alone also , with such a young maide .

Ergo he is in loue with her .

This maie be true , and this maie be false . for although the coniecture haue some probabilite with it , yet is it not for euer true . The other called infallible reasons , or rather necessary Argumentes , muste by all reason be euermore true , as thus .

Such a woman is brought in bed .

Ergo she hath had the company of a man .

¶ An other .

The Sunne is rysen ,

Ergo it is daie .

Therfore in all communicacion , good hede ought to bee taken , that likelyhodes of thynges , be not vsed for necessarie reasons

¶ Of an Argument , called Syllogismus Expositorius .

THis kynde of Argument hath euermore a nown propre , to be as the double repete in both Propositions : contrarie to the maner of all other Argumentes● and it maie be referred to the thirde figure .

Paul doth alleage godlie sentences of the Ethnicques ,

Paul was a preacher .

Ergo , a preacher maye alleage godly saynges of the Ethnicques .

For what so euer is truely gathered of particular thynges , the same also is propre to thynges generall , & what soeuer agreth to the propre name , the same also agreeth to the kynde , to the difference , or propretie , of the saide nowne propre .

Inductio .

AN Induction , is a kynde of Argument when we gather sufficiently a nombre of propre names , and there vpon make the conclusion vniuersall , as thus .

Rhenyshe wine heateth ,

Maluesey heateth ,

Frenchewine heateth , neither is there any wyne that doth the contrary :

Ergo all wine heateth .

¶ An other Example .

Dathan for dis●obience againste the superiour poure , ended his life wretchedly .

Likewise Abiron ,

Likewise Chore ,

Likewise S●mei .

Neither is there any example to the contrary .

Therfore all rebelles , and traytors to their Prince , & Kyng , shall dye wretchedly .

¶ An other Example .

Nembroth although he was a iolie hunter , yet he liued like a wretche in great miserie .

Laban also liued wretchedly ,

Pharao was sore plaged ,

Amalech , Madian , Abimelech ,

Herode , with other ware scourged greuously for their wickednes , neither is their any example to the contrary ,

Therfore the ende of wicked men is wretched .

This kynde of Argument is called Inductio , because that shewing diuerse propre names , it enduceth at length , and moueth the mind to make a generall conclusion . Therfore necessary it is , that in such Argumentes al the examples which are induced be like , for if any be found contrary , the Argument is of no force , as thus ,

Athanasius liued vnmaried ,

Ambrosius liued vnmaried ,

Basilius had no wife & a great many mo .

Ergo all Bishoppes heretofore were vnmaried .

The Argument is not Lawful , forasmuche as diuerse haue been maried in the Primatiue Churche , as Spiridion , Hermes , Hilarius , Policrates , Tertullianus , and diuers other . for it was the maner in the primatiue church that honeste maried men were chosen to be Bishoppes , and had the charge of christes flocke . The Apostles also ( as Egnatius wittenesseth ) had wiues aswel as other men , and as I think vsed them , as other men do their wiues , or elles asked their leaue , and consent to forbeare them .

De Exemplo .

AN example , is a maner of Argumentation , where one thyng is proued by an other , for the likenes , that is found to be in them both , as thus . If Marcus Attilius Regulus had rather lose his life , then not kepe promise with his enemie , them shoulde euery man beyng taken prisoner kepe promise with his enemy . Yf cities haue bene destroied for breaking of wedlocke , then adulterers muste nedes be punished . Yf Alexander dawned a weake souldiour when he was almost frosen for colde , and did set him in his owne chaire against the fier : then should al captaines , and men of warre , be tendre ouer there poore warriours and base souldiours .

E●er more take hede that in this kynde of Argument the causes be like of both sydes , or els the Argumente proueth not , as thus .

Peter killed Ananias taken with an open lye .

Therfore spiritual ministres , may punishe open offendours , with temporal sworde .

The examples are not like . Peter did kill Ananias with the worde , & powre of the holy Ghost-therfore preachers must not kil the body , but onely excommunicate men , accomptyng them vnworthie to be in the congregacion . The sworde is lauful for the temporall Magistrate onely , & for none other .

¶ Sorites .

SOrites , vel coaceruatio , is a heapyng together of causes , one , vpon an other . A kynd of Argument when the last rehersed worde of the first Proposition , is repeted in the firste parte of the seconde Proposition , necessarily agreyng there vnto , and so goyng stil forth in like maner , til at the length the last rehersed worde be added vnto the first woorde , called Subiectum of the first Proposition . And it is a kynde of Argument muche vsed , when we ascend vpward from the lowest , to the highest . or els when we go from the causes , to the next thyng done . whiche thynges done , are the occasion of other thynges besides , as thus .

A man is a liuyng creature ,

A liuyng creature is a liuely body

A liuely bodie is a substaunce ,

Ergo a man is a substaunce .

Where the Lawe is , there is transgression ,

Where there is transgression , there is feare ,

Where there is feare , there is remorse of conscience .

Therefore , where the Lawe is , there is remorse of conscience .

¶ An other .

Iustification is not without faith

Faith is not without a repentant harte ,

Therfore , iustification is not without a repentant harte .

No Argumentes be made negatiuely by this kynd of Argumentation , as thus .

The Gospel is not the Law ,

The Law teacheth vs the feare of God .

Therfore the Gospell doth not .

¶ Or thus .

Christ the sonne , is not in person , God the Father ,

God the father is euer liuyng .

Therefore Christ is not euer-liuyng .

But these , and such like be as wise as this that foloweth .

Iohn is not Iacke ,

Iacke is a good boye .

Therfore Iohn is none .

And the reason is : No Argumentes are made negatiuely by this kynde of reasonyng , neither is the consequent good , when wordes that agree not necessarily , are ioyned together .

Of euill maners are made good lawes ,

Good lawes are thynges worthy to be praised ,

Thynges worthy praise , are to be desired .

Therefore euill maners are to be desired .

This knittyng is not laufull , for euil maners of them selues , are not the occasion of good lawes , but the godly mynd of good Magistrates is the very chiefe cause● as the disease , is not the cause of healyng , but rather the Phisicion , and his Medicines , and mans nature , whiche resisteth the poyson of sickenes is the very cause . Again in euery heapyng vp of Argumentes after suche sorte , learne , and marke , how they procede , and you shall easely se false packyng .

¶ Thus merie fellowes reason when they are at nale .

He that drynkes wel , slepes wel●

He that slepes well , sinnes not ,

He that sinnes not , shal be saued .

Therfore let vs drynk wel , and we shal be saued .

Marke the procedyng and you shal easely auoide the errour , for although in slepe , we sinne not , yet by drinkyng we cause synne , & no one man , at one time both drynketh & slepeth : therfore though in slepyng he offended not , yet in drynkyng he passeth measure .

¶ A horned Argument , called Dilemma .

DIlemma , otherwise complexio , vel cornu●us syllogismus , called a horned Argument , is when the reason consisteth of repugnaunt membres , so that what so euer you graunt , you fall into the snare , and take the foile . As yf I should aske whether it were better to marie a faire woman , or a foul . Yf you say a faire . Then answer I , that is not good , for thei comonly say , she wil be comon . If you say it wer good to mary an hard fauored woman , then I answere , she wil be lothsome , and so ye fall into an inconuenience . Notwithstandyng if either of the partes maie be turned into the aduersaries necke againe , or both of them , it is a faulty Argument . and you maie confute the same by inuersion , that is to say , turning his taile cleane contrarie , as thus . If I shall marie a faire woman , I shal haue great pleasure , and confort in her : yf I marie a browne woman , she shal not be common to other , for few men wil seke after her . Therfore , I shal haue comfort both waies .

De Consequentiis .

IF profiteth not a litle , after the rehersall of such Argumentes briefly to show the knittyng of Propositions , and to declare the maner of a shorte Argument vttered by twoo Propositions , which are said to stand vpon the Antecedent and the Consequent : as the Logicians vse to terme them .

¶ The f●rst rule .

From the vniuersall to the particular , the argument goeth well , but not contrary , as thus .

This officer doth his dutie .

Ergo all officers doth their dutie●

But this is true .

All officers do their dutie ,

Ergo this officer doth his dutie .

¶ The second rule .

From that , whiche by nature is in any thyng , to that whiche happeth casually , or commeth by some miseuill , the reason is not good . As thus .

Sobre diet is good :

A feuer causeth sobre diet .

Ergo a feuer is good .

Another argument vsed by the Romishe bishop .

Synne doth not beget man .

The worke of lust begetteth man .

Therfore lust otherwise called concupiscentia , is not synne .

The second proposicion is not true , for wicked concupiscence , came in by mannes foly , and hath muche defaced that , which nature first ordeined . Therfore nature it self through god , geueth increase , whiche is muche contrary to the wicked lust of concupiscence .

¶ ●●e third rule .

Thynges disagreeyng , are not con●idered bothe one waie , and with one respecte .

The Gospell willeth vs to make no difference of meates .

The Phisicens appoynct vs a diet , and forbid vs this and that .

Ergo the Gospell , and the phisicens teache thynges contrary

These do not disagree , consideryng their endes are diuerse . The scripture forbiddeth supersticion , in the obseruacion of daies : the Phisicen hath respect to the state of a mannes body .

¶ The fourth rule .

The argument is good , when substaunces are set , accordyng to their propre differences . But when thei are set , the one against the other , accordyng to the accidentes , whiche are conuenient to bothe , the argument is not good . As thus .

It is lawfull for you , not to drynke wine .

Ergo to drynke wine , is vnlawfull .

Where as this woorde lawfull , is common to bothe , aswell to drynke , as not to drynke .

¶ The .v. rule .

Euery thyng , the more that other thynges are through it , thesame is alwaies the more it self . As thus .

The water is hote through fire .

Ergo the fire is more hote .

Another .

Some loue to mary for goodes●

Therefore thei loue goodes best of all .

Some argumentes made , accordyng to this rule , are nothyng true . & therfore it is good to geue warnyng of them .

It is wel said , and wisely , this rule holdeth in causes , that are next adioynyng , and the whiche wholy compasse a matter● not in those causes , that are fetched farre of , and beeyng but halfe causes , partly and by the waye , geue onely the occasion . As thus .

Ouide came to be a Poete by his Master .

Therefore his master was the greater Poete .

The argumen● is not good in those causes , that are but half causes , for Ouid is not a Poete , onely because he learned Preceptes of his Master , but also because he had a greate aptnes by nature , and a wonderfull witte , to do better then another .

Some hold fast vpon a saiyng of . S. Augustine , and buylde wonders vpon that text . I would not beleue the Gospell saieth Augustine , excepte the catholike churche did perswade me . And herevpon saie thei .

The Gospel is beleued , for the churche sake .

Ergo the Churche is of more aucthoritee .

And here thei heape a nombre of mischiefes . Therfore ( saie thei ) the church maie make lawes , appoynct tradicions whatsoeuer thei bee . But I answere thus , the Antecedent is false . For I chiefly beleue the Gospell , consideryng God is the aucthor : and seyng the wonders that he hath doen , I geue credite to it for his sake . I graunt we do beleue the Gospell , for the churche sake , but yet principally , for that GOD is the chief aucthor , that perswadeth vs to receiue his worde , and after the churche ( as the seconde cause ) telleth vs that the Gospel is the truth of God . Therfore if thei will make this suche an argument , as thei seme to saie it is , then this that foloweth , is of as good force , for in all thynges it is like .

This child is a good boye , gramercie rod .

Ergo the rodde is better then the boye .

Of the second part of Logique , called Inuentio , that is to saie , the fyndyng out of an argument .

HEtherto we haue treated of the former parte of logique called in latine Iuditium , that is to saye , Iudgement , or skill , to declare the nature of euerye worde seuerallie , to set the same wordes in a perfecte sentence , and to knitte them vp in argument , so that hereby we myght with ease espie , the ryght frame in matters , howe they agree beyng lapped vp in order . Nowe therefore the other parte shal be sette forth whiche is called Inuentio , whereby we maie finde argumentes , and reasons , mete to proue euery matter where vpon question maie ryse . This parte is the store house of places wherin argumentes rest , vnto the whiche if wee conferre the matter whiche wee entende to proue , there will appere diuerse argumentes to confirme the cause . Like as they therefore that digge for golde in the grounde , do searche narowly the vaynes of the yearth , and by diligent markyng the nature thereof , at length fynde out the mine , which ones beyng founde , they strayght bryng to lyght , for the onely behoue of man : So he that will reason wysely , aswell for the commune profite of other , as for his owne priuate gayne , must be a very diligent labourer . and consideryng matters are put to the proufe , wherein often resteth doubte , his parte must be euermore to marke the nature of his cause and to seke confirmation therof in euery parte . First by the definition , the cause , the effecte , and propre office . Agayne to se what is contrarie , what is like , and what thinges be incident thervnto , the which all when he hath done● he shall se at length that some one argument aboue al other , serueth best to confirme his cause , the whiche when with trauayle , he hath founde out , he maie bryng to light and vse , accordyng to his will .

¶ What a place is .

A Place is the restyng corner of an argument , or els a marke whiche giueth warnyng to our memory what we maie speake probablie , either in the one parte , or the other , vpon all causes that fall in question . Those that be good hare finders will sone finde the hare by her fourme . For when they se the grounde beaten flatte round about , & faire to the sight : thei haue a narow gesse by al likelihod that the hare was there a litle before . Likewyse the hontesman in huntyng the foxe , wil sone espie when he seeth a hose , whether it be a foxe borough , or not . So he that will take profite in this parte of logique , must be like a hunter , and learne by labour to knowe the boroughes . For these places be nothyng el● but couertes or boroughes , wherein if any one searche diligentlie , he maie fynde game at pleasure . And although perhappes one place fayle him , yet shal he finde a dousen other places , to accomplishe his purpose . Therfore if any one will do good in this kynde , he must go from place to place , and by serching euery borough , he shall haue his purpose vndoubtedlie in moste part of them , if not in all . We se that euery proposicion dooth either affirme a thyng to be true , or els denieth , that it is true . Therefore when any thyng is constantly saide● it nedeth somewhat euermore to confirme it . As for example . The Sacramentes are necessarie in the churche of God . I maie proue this sayng true , by reasonyng from that place whiche is called the ende of euery thynge . As thus .

To geue testimonie of our faythe , and to nousell our selfe in the practise thereof , is very necessarie .

The Sacramentes geue testimonie of our fayth . &c.

Ergo the Sacramentes are verie necessarie .

When anie proposition doth denie , it is nedefull to haue a thirde worde whiche maie agree with one parte of the proposition . As if one should thus saie . Man is not iustified by his workes . The place of repugnaunt wordes that do altogether disagree geueth iust matter . And therfore I maie saie , man is not iustified by his workes , because he is iustified by his fayth onely . For if mercie come by grace , and that frelie , then workes cannot saue vs . Paule proueth the first , therefore the seconde is for euer true .

¶ The diuision of the places , whiche are . xxii●● . in nomber . Some are inward places called loci interni & thei ar Partly in the very subst &c. a● Definitio Genus Species Proprium totum partes Coniugatae and partly incident to the substance as Adiacentiae Actus Subiectum . Either kult●e with a nigh affinitie , called Cognata of the which● some are causes as Efficiens Finis , Some are those , whiche spring of the causes called Euenta . as Effectae● destinata Some are outward places . called Externi , that is not in the substance or natur of the thyng , but without it and these are . ¶ Or els applied to the thing , not Kyng the cause thereof , but onely geuyng a name therevnto , called Applicita . As Locus . Tempus . Connexa Or els thei be accidentes , wherof there be .v. Contingentiae . Pronunciatae Nomen r●i , Comparat● . Similia . Or els thei are repu●nancies , as Opposita . Differentia .

¶ Of the difinicion .

There be seuen places , whiche are in the substance , or nature of the thyng The definicion . The generall worde . The kynde . The propretie . The whole . The partes . The yoked wordes .

A Definicion is a perfect sentence whereby the very nature of the thyng it self , is sette furthe and expounded . You maie reason from this place , bothe affirmatiuely , and negatiuely , as thus . Fortitude is a vertue , that fighteth in the querel of right I maie reason thus from the definicion to the thyng defined , if I wil proue fortitude praise worthy .

Da Whatsoeuer is a vertue , fightyng in the querell of right , thesame is praise worthy . ri Fortitude is a vertue , fightyng in the querell of right . i Therefore fortitude is praise worthy .

If I will define a good thyng , and proue that money is ●ot good , I maie reason thus .

Ce No such thyng is good , that is desired for respect of another ende sa Al money is desired , for respect of another ende . re Therefore no money is good .

¶ The generall rule .

To whom the definicion doth agree to thesame also doth the thyng defined belong . And contrary wise , bothe affirmatiuely and negatiuely .

¶ The maner of reasonyng

If Socrates be a liuyng creature indued with reason , then is he a man , if he be a man , he is a liuyng creature indued with reason . If he bee not a liuyng creature . &c. then is he no man . If he bee no man , then is he no liuyng creature , indued with reason .

¶ The vse .

The nature of euery thyng , is knowen by the definicion , and therfore this place aboue al other is moste necessary

Of the generall worde .

The generall woorde , is spoken of many , that differ either in kynd , or els diffre in nombre , when the question is asked , what it is , we maie reason negatiuely , from this place thus .

Ce No wastfulnes is a vertue . sa Liberalitie is a vertue . re Therfore no wastfulnes can be called liberalitie .

Or thus .

No vertue maie bee called wastfulnes .

Liberalitie is a vertue .

Therfore liberalitie maie not be called wastfulnes .

¶ The generall rule .

If the generall woorde be taken awaie , the kynde tarieth not . If the generall woorde doo remain , it shall not straight folowe , that the kynd shall ensue . For it is no good argument , if I se a tree a good way from me , to say , it is a tree , therefore it is an Apple tree . I maie say thus well negatiuely , it is no tree . Therfore it is neither apple tree nor other .

¶ The maner of reasonyg .

If euery creature by nature loue it self , then man doth loue hymself . If euery vertue be praise worthye , then in th administracion of iustice , to geue euery man his awne , it is praise worthy .

¶ The vse .

The generall worde , declareth the largenesse of any thyng , so that where the generall taketh no place , the other that be inferior cannot be . As if there be no liuyng creature , in some one house , then there muste nedes be no maner of man in thesame house .

Of the kynde .

The kynde beynge reckened emong the places , is taken to be anye one thynge that is lesse generall than an other , and by this shyfte euen propre noumes or names of thinges shal serue for the kynde , and go in steade thereof . Therfore as we reason from the kynd to the generall , so may we reason from nownes proper , to their kyndes .

Of the kynde

From the kynde to the generall , an argument is made affirmatiuelye , as thus . if iustice is to be desyred , than vertue is to be desyred . Such a man is a slaunderer , ergo he is a naughtie man .

The general rule .

To whome the kynde doth agree , to the same also the general doth agree .

The maner o● reasonyng .

Yf sobriete be praise worthie , then vertue is praise worthie . If dronckenes be deuelishe , then surfeytyng is deuelishe .

The vse .

The kynde is general to euery propre name , and therfore in describynge the nature of euery noune proper , we haue muche nede of this place , to know vnder what kynde euery seueral thing i● comprehended . Againe what soeuer is defined , that same is the kynd of some one thynge , so that hereby we learne how farre this worde stretcheth beyng ordeyned to sette forthe the nature of euery propre name .

Of the diff●rence and propr●tye .

From the propretye , and difference argumentes are deriued both affirmatiue , and negatiue . he can reason a matter artificiallye , therfore he is a good logicien . Aesope coulde not vtter his minde at large , but dyd stammer , and staye muche in his speche , therefore he was no Oratour .

The general rule .

When the propretye , or difference is graunted , then the kynde straight foloweth , take awaye the same , and ther remayneth no kynde at all .

The maner of reasonyng .

Whosoeuer is endued with reason , the same is a man

The vse .

The difference , and the proprety declare natures workyng in all thynges lyuyng , and therfore they h●lpe wel to shewe what euery thyng is by his propre gyfte .

we spake before of a methode , or directe order to be vsed in all our doinges : and herein we maie wel se the vse therof . for hetherto we handeled those places which do nothyng els but comprehende the nature of a perfecte definition . nowe whereas the place foloweth of the whole and his partes , it is nothynge els but the right maner of a perfecte diuision . the places that folowe ●fter , declare the causes , the effectes , what be incident , what be disagreyng frome the matter , shewynge example and testimonies of the auncient .

Of the whole and the partes .

The whole is that same which consisteth of his partes , and is deuided .ij. maner of wayes . Firste there is the whole in substaunce , which standeth of suche partes , that if one betaken away , the whole decayeth straight , neyther can it afterwarde kepe his name , as it did before . For an example . A man is diuided into bodye , and soule . Take away the bodie , who compteth the soule to be that man , which before had his bodye ioyned thereunto ? we saye the soule liueth whan the body is dede , but no man saieth the soule is the veray man , euen as we called hym before , when he was compacte of both .

Againe there is the whole absolute with his partes , which serueth to make the whole perfect , addyng suche thinges that althoughe they be awaye , yet the whole notwithstandynge remayneth , and hathe his name still , as whan a man is made of body , and soule , ( whiche are the partes of his substance , and cannot be away ) yet hath he othe● partes , whiche although thei be away , the whole notwithstandynge kepethe his name stil. As if a man lose his hand● his arme , or one of his fete , yet is he called a man , and these be called partes integrales , that is to saye , the partes whiche finishe the whole , and make it perfecte , after that it hath those partes whiche make the substaunce .

The general rule .

Yf the whole be , the partes of the substance muste nedes be . As if a man be alyue , the bodie , & soule , both lyue .

The maner of reasonyng .

Yf philosophie be good , then it is good to knowe the nature of thynges , the waye of ordering mans life , and the skyl howe to reason probablie , for philosophie it selfe is diuided into these thre partes .

The vse .

Here by we learne to examine the whole by the partes , that if we cannot obteyne our purpose to haue the whole graunted , to examine it by the partes , and force oure aduersarie to assente to some member .

The integrale partes , whiche make perfecte the whole , and cause the bignesse therof , are called partes like , or not lyke .

Partes like , are those which are alwayes like , and deuided euermore into like . As the flesh , bones , sinewes , fyer , water , gold , yron , wyne , wood , stone . Euery part of al these , is called asmuch as the whole . as a piece of fleshe , is called flesh , a piece of wood , is called wood a droppe of water , is called water , as wel as a gallon of water is called water . They be called in latin Similares partes , bycause thei are named like vnto the whole , for a piece of fleshe is aswel called fleshe , and asmoche hath it the name of fleshe , as a great braune hath . The partes which haue not like names to the whole , are partly principal , & partely not principal . the principal partes are those which in no wise mai be away without losse of the whole it selfe : as the partes of mans bodye whiche conteyne life , cannot be awaye withoute losse of the man . As the head , the bealy , the hart , & the entrailes . Ye● notwithstandyng the partes of these cannot be called lyke to the whole , for no man saith that a piece of the hart , is a hart , or a piece of the heade , is a head , & so in the other .

Those which are not principal partes , maye be awaye : and the whole not withstandyng remayne stil , as the handes , the fiete , the legges , & the armes .

The general rule .

When the chief partes are taken awaye , the whole nedes decaieth : the chief partes beynge brought altogether , the whole nedes muste followe .

Suche a man hathe learned moral philosophie , natural , and logique , therfore he is a Philosopher .

Badius can neither write wel , speake well , nor yet recite authours acordyngly . Therfore he is no grāmarien . This man is no rethoricien , because he cannot place his thynges in good ordre . For where as fiue thinges be required ●n an Oratour , first , to inuente , aftre to place thynges inuented , thirdlie , to set forth the matter in good wordes , fourthly , to remembre all these , and last of al to vtter the same distinctlie , and with a clere voice . If one lacke any of these fyue , he cannot be called an oratour . Therfore I may saye , suche a one hath an euell memorie . Ergo he is no oratour . or such a one hath no vtteraunce . Ergo he may not be called an oratour . In the negatiue part , it is enoughe to take one part away , for the disalowing of any thyng . But if I wil affirme any thyng by the partes , I must take all the partes , and not one , or two partes . For he is not an oratour that canne inuent onely , or place thynges in good ordre onlie , except he can do the whole as it is required . Agayne he is no good oratour that can teache onelie , or delite , but he is absolute that can both teach , delite , and also perswade .

¶ The maner of reasonyng .

We reason from the part to the whole affirmatiuely , and negatiuely . Thus. Suche a one can neither iudge the knitting of wordes together , nor frame them in order accordyng to the arte , nor auoyde any subtilties . Ergo he is no logician .

¶ The vse .

The partes sette forth the whole , and are a great beautifieng to the same , beyng seuerally handeled , and in their natures sette forth at large .

¶ Of woordes yoked together .

Yoked wordes whiche beyng deriued of one , are chaunged in the speakyng . As of Sapiens , sapientia , sapienter . A wise man , wisdome , wisely . Here we se that of a wise man , is deriued wysdome . I may reason from this place both affirmatiuely , and negatiuely , If one be not wise , he hath no wisdom , if one be wyse , he hath wisedome . If one do circumspectely , he is called a circumspecte man . If it be no misery to die , then death is not miserable . Such a one is a philosopher , therfore he hath studied philosophie . Argumentes deriued from hence haue great force , if the only yoked wordes be ioyned together without addition of an other , or els they are not strong . As thus . Preachers be euell liuers . Ergo preachyng is euell .

¶ The generall Rule .

When one of the yoked wordes is added , or put away , the other also is added , or put awaye .

¶ The maner of reasonyng .

Suche a one is a priestely minister , Ergo he is a priest . Suche a man hath serued the kyng nobly . Ergo he is a noble man . The preacher handled his matter learnedlie . Ergo the preacher hath learnyng .

¶ The vse .

We maie learne by this place to knowe what thynges are , beyng considered in other . For if I woulde knowe whether it be good , or no , to be a man of honour , and to haue rule in the commune weale : I may learne by them that do rule , what it is to be a man of honoure , and howe daungerouse a callyng they haue , that are placed in high estate .

¶ Of wordes adioyned to the substaunce and yet not of the substaunce .

Wordes adioyned are called those accidentes whereby the singuler word , or propre name , hath an other name than of the verie substaunce , as vnto Cato , ( whiche of his substaunce is a man ) wisdome doth happen , whereby he is called wyse . Unto Cicero also ( whiche by his substaunce is a man ) there happeneth eloquence , whereby he is called eloquent . So that he hath an other name then his substaunce geueth , whiche is to be eloquent , and this is the word adioyned . Al quantities , qualities , and those that are comprehended in the predicament of relation , are referred to this place , when they are considered to be comprehended in a substaunce . Uertue referred to the mynde whiche conteyneth it , is a worde adioyned : compared with vice , it is a contrarie : referred to iustice , it is a generall worde . Wordes adioyned are perceiued . either by the senses ( as those whiche are subiect to the senses ) or els by vndrestandyng . As swyftenesse may be considered to be in a man , although we se him lie a longe . And so we saye suche a lacquie ronneth wel , although we do not then presently se him runne , but we remembre that he hath ronne , saiyng now as we haue sene before in dede . Againe some wordes adioyned are by nature in the thyng which conteine them , as heate is naturally in fire . And because we se that the same heate , although it neuer go awaye , yet at all tymes it is not of like strength : but at some time less whote , then at an other , we iudge the same heate to be an accident . Some wordes adioyned are not naturally cleauyng , but by some other waye are ioyned to the thing conteinyng them , as heate in water set vppon the fyer .

¶ The generall Rule .

I fone of the wordes adioyned be in the subiect or thyng conteinyng , the other also is lyke to be there , which foloweth vpon the first . As thus . Cato is a man worthie praise , because he is ware sober , and full of experience . Prayse foloweth vertue , as the shadow doth the bodie . Therefore whosoeuer hath modestie & great knowledge of thynges , the same man of necessitie winneth praise , and fame , that cannot die . Agayne if the wordes adioyned be , the subiect that conteyneth them must nedes be also , as thus . If God be all goodnes then there is a God .

¶ The maner of reasonynng .

Christ came to this worlde beyng gentle and milde . Ergo Christ came not to destroye the lost shepe , but to saue them . Scholers be godlie , vertuouse , and occupied in learnyng . Ergo it is a graciouse dede to helpe suche of theim as haue nede .

¶ The vse .

We maie by this place either praise , or dispraise , setting forth the nature of men , & iudgyng them by their workes .

¶ Of dedes done , or suffred to be done , called Actus .

THe maner of doyng , or sufferyng is , when we are supposed to bee occupied , or affected any maner of waie , either in doyng , or in suffryng . There be so many maner of doinges , as there be adiacentes , or wordes adioyned . And of these adiacentes , feare , sorowe , trauaile , reste , heate , colde , are deriued these : to feare , to be sory , to trauaile , to rest , to be hotte , to be colde . And generally all those wordes that are referred vnto the two Predicamentes called the maner of doyng , and the sufferyng , are compassed with in this place , if the same woordes be considered as Accidentes which cleaue to the substaunce , & maie both be present , & also be a waie without losse of the substaunce . For if thinges done , be waied accordyng to their proper maner of doing , they are referred to the two places aboue , called the difference and the propretie . For where as we saie . Such a one speaketh , Ergo he is man ( for nothyng els can speake naturally but man onely ) although in this case ( to speake ) be a maner of doyng , yet it is not referred to this , but rather to the propretie , bicause it belongeth to man alone , & alwaies to man .

¶ The generall rule .

If the maner of doyng , or sufferyng be , the thyng conteynyng is also , and the woordes adioyned also ( whereof doyng , and sufferyng haue their of spryng ) folowe vpon the same .

¶ The maner of reasonyng from this place .

If one breathe , the same man hath life in him . If Iulius Cesar came into England , then there was such a man called Iulius Cesar . Yf Richard the third plaied the tyrante here in Englande , then there was suche a man in Englande .

¶ The Use.

This place much helpeth either for praise , or dispraise . Some officers bribe the poore , robbe their Maister , and wayst their own . Ergo suche are worthie death .

¶ Of the thyng conteyning .

The Subiecte , or the thyng conteinyng , is a substaunce being the stoore-house of Accidentes , & the very proppe to hold vp diedes done : for neither wisdom , strength , health , nor Policie can be at al , except they be conteined with in some one body .

¶ The generall rule .

Take away the thyng conteinyng , and there remaineth nether adiacent , nor yet dede done .

¶ The maner of reasonyng .

There is fie● , Ergo it is hotte . Christ was a very man , Ergo Christ died , and sufferde the panges at his departyng .

¶ An other .

Why doest thou say that I owe the a croune , whome I knowe was neuer yet worth a grote . Melanchthon liueth and readeth . Therfore there is great learnyng to be had where he is .

¶ The Use.

By naming a worthy person , his prayse is sufficiently set forth , euen when his name is ons vtterd . For what learned man hearing the name of Cicero , doth not remembre thereby , the ful practise and the absolute skil of all eloquence ? These places therfore helpe aswel for the amplifiyng of matters , either in prayse or disprayse , as they do for the stedfast prouyng of any cause .

¶ Of outward places beyng not in the substaunce , but only touching the substaunce , and without the nature of it .

THe firste are called , the causes of thynges , and the thynges comming of causes , which only are ioyned t● the thyng necessarily , where as the other places folowyng are not coupled necessarily , but are only ioyned together by a certain alliaunce to the present matier .

¶ The deuision of caus●s .

Some causes , are called the very causes of thynges , euen by their owne nature : other causes are happenyng causes , the which may perhapps bryng forth the effect , lastely there be causes without the which , thinges can not be done , and yet are they not any cause to force the effecte●

The very cause of thynges , is such a one that if it be practised in very diede , and set forth with other naturall causes , the effect must nedes folowe : and againe if it be not putte in practise , although the other be put , yet the effect shall not folowe . As for example , although one haue a cloth , yet can he not haue the vse of it , excepte the tailer cutte it out . And although the milner grinde , yet we are like to dine without breade , excepte the baker , do his parte also in the batche .

The happenyng cause , is such a one that although it bee putte in practise in very diede , yet it shall not straight waie so be , that the effect muste n●des folowe . As an ague may be the happenyng cause , that some one man kepeth good diet , & yet not any forcyng cause : for then all sicke folke might be compted for sober men . The cause without the whiche , thynges cannot be dooen , as thus . The Surgean cannot heale a wounde , except the dedde fleshe be cut out . The waiefarer shall hardly come to his iorneis end , except he haue some money in his purse . In time of warre , it is euill trauailyng without a passe porte , & this is called in Latine , Causa sine qua non , that is to say , the cause without the which we can not , and yet it is not the cause of our iourneyng .

¶ The de●inition of a very cause .

A cause in very dede , is a meane , by whose force some thyng doth folowe .

¶ There be .iiii. such causes .

The efficient cause . The end . The matier . The shape .

The efficient cause , is the working cause , by whose meanes , thynges are brought to passe .

Of those that are workyng causes , some by nature bring thynges to passe , some by aduisement , and by afore purposed choyse . Thynges woorke by nature ( and that necessarily ) which lacke knowlege to chuse this , or that , & haue no iudgement , to discerne thynges . As the Sonne , the fire , herbes , precious stones . The sonne , euen by nature , geueth light to the daie , and cannot other wise doo . the fire burneth naturally● Herbes kepe their vertue of necessitie . The Adamant draweth Iron , euen by nature . And so the bloud stone , stoppeth bloud . Some of these causes worke by the force and violence of nature , some by an outward powre , beyng strained thervnto . Thei worke by the force and violence of nature , whose beginnyng , is within theimselfes : beyng ayded by none other outward thing . As fire burneth , euen by the natural force of heate , which is in the substance therof . Thei woorke by an outward powre , whiche are strayned to woorke by another meane . As water set vpon the fire , waxeth hot , & yet is not hote by her awne nature , but is made hotte by the nature , and might of fire , of whom the water taketh heate . In like maner boulettes of leade , shot out of a gunne , an arr●we out of a bowe , a stone out of a slyng : all these flie not into the ayre , by their ●wne power or might , but by force , & violence of him that casteth them

¶ The generall rule .

From the naturall workyng cause , the effecte must nedes folowe , as thus . If the Sonne shine , the daie muste nedes be , whiche is the effecte , or workemanship of the Sunne . Suche a man hath eaten Hemlock : Ergo he is poysoned , and in daunger of death . Fire is in the Chimney , or in the toppe of the house , therefore it muste nedes burne . Take away the cause , and th effect can not be at al : for if there be no fire , there can bee no flame , nor burnyng neither .

The seconde workyng cause , is when thynges are dooen by aduisement , and by choyse , not by any necessitie at all , for thynges maie aswell not bee doen , as be doen , as if there be a Shomaker , there maie be shone made , and contrary , if there be no Shomaker , there can be no shone at all .

¶ The ●enerall rule .

When the voluntary cause in put , the woorkemanship , or the thyng doen maie folowe . As if there be a Carpenter , a house maie be made . If one reade good a●cthors , and herken to the readyng of learned men , he maie come to good learnyng .

¶ The maner of reasonyng .

Suche a one hath dronke poyson , ergo he will dye shortly . Christe hath reconciled mankind to his father , by sufferyng death vpon the Crosse , Ergo suche as beleue in this sauyng health , shall liue for euer .

¶ Another diuision of ●auses efficient .

Some efficient causes , are commaundyng causes . As the Kyng is the commaundyng cause to his subiecte , to doo this or that . The Master of workes , is the commaundyng cause , to all the laborers . The other efficient causes , are obedient causes , when the seruant worketh at his maisters commaundement .

¶ Another d●uis●on of causes efficient .

Of suche efficient causes as do obey , some doo their woorke , as the Mason worketh vpon the stone , the Carpenter vpon wood . Other efficient causes that are obedient , are but instrumentes of dooyng , as hatchet●es , hammers , pike a●es , with other . In battaill , the capitain is the efficient commaunder : the souldiour● the efficient obeyer : gunnes dartes , bowes , and billes , the instrumentes of doyng . Good hede ought to bee had , that in all causes wee make a difference , not confoundyng one with another , that the nigh causes , & the farther causes , be not taken all for one . A cause farre fetched , is this . Such a one fell out with his neighbour : Ergo he killed hym . Fallyng out bryngeth chidyng , chidyng bryngeth hatred , hatred causeth fightyng , fightyng geueth blowes , blowes sone dispatche , sone dispatchyng , is ready death . Therefore , I might more probably reason thus . Suche a one gaue his neighbor a dedly wounde : Ergo he hath killed hym . And thus the argumeist is made from the nighest cause .

¶ Another diuision .

Some causes are principall causes , as the holy ghoste workyng all Godly mocions , and stirryng our nature , euermore to the best . Other causes , are the inclinacions in man , that are either good or eiuill Thirdly , there are helpyng causes , whiche are meanes the rather , to further vs in all vertue . As learnyng , practisyng of honest behauor , acquaintyng our nature , euermore with the best . The principall cause , that Ioseph forbare , to company with another mannes wife : was the holy ghost , that stirred his mind with the fear of God . The second cause , was his awne mynd , that remembred the worde of God , and the punishement dewe for synne . The thirde cause was , that he accustomed himself , euer to liue vprightly , and not onely to auoyde synne , but also to auoyde the occasion of synne . There be other diuisions , but I leaue to reherse them , for feare I should be ouer long .

¶ The ende , called . Finis .

THe ende is , for whose cause any thyng is doen , and is twoo waies considered . For there is an absolute ende , whervnto al other are referred , beeyng called the perfeccion , and chief propertie in any thyng : as the chiefest ende in any man , is to be perfectly endued with reason , and to attain euerliuyng felicitie . The chiefest propertie in a horse , is to be of a very good courage , & to want no stomacke : the chifest perfeccion in fire , is to bee very hote , and very drye . There is another ende , called a helpyng ende , whiche serueth to an higher ende , and is onely ordeined for this purpose , that wee might attain thereby , the perfecte ende of all . As meate , drinke , apparell , and other necessary thynges , are helping endes for man , to attain the chifest ende . For without these endes , man could not liue . To liue honestly in this life , to be vpright in dealyng , with all persones , is an helpyng ende , ( as the Philosophiers take it , ) and a testimonie to the worlde of our faith ( as the Christians take it ) for man to liue , world without ende . To mary a wife , is a helpyng ende , for a man to auoyde fornicacion . The pore man laboureth , and wherefore ? To get his liuyng . Wherfore getteth he his liuyng ? That he maie the better be able to serue God . The souldiour fighteth at his princes commaundement , chiefly because God commaundeth him , next after for loue of the kyng and his countrey : thirdly and last of al that he might liue the rather , in quiet at home with his wife , and children . So that of one , and thesame thyng , there maie bee many endes , beeyng orderly considred .

¶ The general rule .

Whose ende is good , or euill , thesame thyng is good , or euil , as a sweard is good , because it is good for a man , to defende hymself . Faithe in Christ Iesu is good , for by faithe we are saued . To vndo my neighbour , with lendyng for gain , is moste vngodly : therefore to be an vsurer , is moste vngodly . To desire another mannes wife , is vngodly , because adultery , is vngodly . Battaill is good , because it bryngeth peace . For al men should fight , for this ende , that we might liue in quiete , with our neighbours . If thou wilt be honest● and estemed for a godly person , do the accions of vertue , and thou shalt be wel reported of , especially of the honest . It is good to learne , because learning it self is good , whiche is th ende of our study .

¶ Of th● mat●r or substance , called , Materia .

THe substance called materia , is ready to bee framed of the woorkeman , as hym liketh , by the whiche substaunce , either thynges naturall , or els thynges artificiall are made . As first a man , whiche is a naturall thyng , is made of body , & soule . An Image , whiche is an artificiall thyng , is made by the handy worke of man , & is grauen out of stone , or molten in gold , or in brasse . From this place are made argumentes , that bothe do affirme , and also deny . As thus , if a man haue cloth , he maie haue a garment made if it like hym . But if a manne haue no clothe at al , how can he haue a goune , or a coate ? If the Baker lacke meale , how can he make bread . The matier is considred . ●● . waies . Fir●● it is a substance , that tarieth stil , as when a house is made of stone , wodd , & plaister , or an Image of gold , brasse , or siluer : Here the substance tarieth still , although the forme be altred . Likewise when a house is taken doune , the stone , & tymbre remain stil , and k●pe their substance , and serue as thei did before , either for ereccion of thesame house again , or els other wise , as it shal please him that is the awner . Again , the substaunce is that , whiche chaungeth into another nature , and cannot bee thesame , that it was before : as of meale and water , bakers make their bread : now thei cannot resolue thesame breade , again into Meale , and water , whiche was the former substaunce .

¶ The generall rule .

When the substance is at hand , the workmanship maie folowe , and the effecte maie appere : But when the substance is taken awaie , there can be nothyng made at al. As if a man lacke siluer , how can he make an Image of siluer ? There is no stone , wood , nor plaister : Ergo there is no house . But if I reason thus by the substance , that changeth into another nature , and cannot be thesame , that it was before : I reason then amisse , as thus . Ther is no meale or flower , ergo there is no bread : but I should saie rather , there was no meale nor flower , ergo there is no bread .

¶ The maner of reasonyng

The Shoomaker hath no Lether , how can he then make a Shooe ? The Printer hath no paper , ergo he cannot set his men on worke .

The shape called Forma .

The shape , or fashion of any thyng , is a cause whereby the thyng that is made hath his name , as leather , when it is m●de , or fashioned for the foote , is called a shooe . Suche a man wearēth a liuery coote garded with Ueluet , and all the Yeoman seruauntes haue but plain cootes , ergo he is one of the gentlemen . He hath a siluer pot gilte , and wrought with Goldsmithes woorke , Ergo it is better then a pot , wrought with plain siluer , beeyng of the same quantitie or bigg●enes .

The general rule .

Whan the shappe or fourme is made : th effect , or thyng ●oen may folow : take awaie the shape , & the vse also is taken awaye . A cup is made , ergo a man maie drinke in it : breake the cuppe , and how shal you drinke of thesame cuppe . The element goth compasse wise , because it is round . Reason is called the shape of man . Therfore I maie saye , suche a one lacketh the gift of reason , Ergo he is a foole .

Thynges comyng after the causes , called Euen●a .

Those which come of causes , are .ij. waies considred , for either thei are called thynges that in due tyme folowe the cause that went before , or els thynges ordeined to some certain ende .

Those thynges whiche come after the cause , and are made of the same , are called effecta . And euery argument is either deriued from th effect of the matter , of the forme , or of th efficient cause .

¶ From the effect of the matter or substaunce , called Materia , thus ye maye reason .

He hath a Sworde made of Iron , Ergo he hath yron . Here is a house , Ergo here is stone , and wodde .

From the effect of the fourme .

A bowle beynge turned , rouleth , Ergo it is round .

From the effecte of the eff●c●ent cause .

It is bright day , Ergo the son is vp .

The gen●ral rule .

When the effecte is come forthe , it muste nedes be , that either his propre cause is then , or els that it hath been before .

The maner of reasonyng .

Yf slaughter be not to be borne in a commune weale , then these pyke quarellers , these roisters , and fighters , are not to be suffered to go vnpunished .

The thyng apointed for some ●nde .

That whiche is appointed for some certayne ende , and vse : is called destinatum , as a house is buylded to dwell in . Armour is prouided for man to defend hymself . Medicines are helpyng meanes , for man to recouer helth . I shewed before that there was an●ende , whiche was a helpyng ende , & a meane to come to the perfect , & moste absolute ende , for without this appointed meane and prouision of God , man could neuer liue , muche lesse could he come to any perfeccion in this life , as touchyng the accions , & worthy feates required of man . Thus we maie reason from this place . Seyng it is lawfull for man , to defende himself , it is lawfull for man , to weare a weapon . If warre be lawful , then money is necessary , without which , no man can go forward , or set furthe an armie .

The generall rule .

Those thynges that agree to that whiche is apointed to the ende , agree also to the ende it selfe .

The maner of reasonyng lawfullye .

If a manne maye lawfully buye the greate bible in Englishe , he maye then also euen without askyng leaue , reade it at his pleasure .

The v●● of all these causes .

The commoditie of these causes is so great , that in settyng furthe the vse of them , a man might soner lacke wordes , than want matter . First we know that nothyng is done without a cause , and therfore seyng this worlde framed as it is , euerye thinge proporcioned in his due order , we maye trulie gather that there is one aboue all , that ruleth all , whom the Christian calleth God . In praisyng or dispraysyng , how can a man better procede , than by rehersyng the ende of euery thyng . Again in examinyng and searchyng out the profite or disprofite , by th ende we knowe what is gainfull : by the efficient cause we knowe what maie be dooen . For whatsoeuer is profitable , the same is profitable for some ende , and whatsoeuer we wolde haue done , we maye soone perceaue by the efficient , if it may be done . yea in causes of iudgement , we maye iudge , what wil some one man had to do this or that , when we consider , to what ende he did this or that . Last of all , we know hereby , that God hath ordeyned nothing in vayne , and that euery thing is ordeyned for some one end . The end of Christes death was , to merite mans redemption . The ende of mans lyfe is , to trust wholly in Christes passion , and to lyue thereby for euer .

Of thynges outwardly applied , called Applici●a .

Thei are called thinges outwardly applied to a matter , whiche are not the cause of the same matter , and yet , geue a certaine denomination to it . There be iij of this sorte .

The tyme . The place . Thinges annexed , or knitte together .

And these .iij. are nothyng els , than the .iij. Predicamentes or general places , whiche I rehersed before .

Vbi . Where . Quando . When. Habitus . The arayeng .

The maner of reasonyng .

Yf one list to reason from the place , called in latin Locus , he may thus say . Suche a one is in the countrye , Ergo he is not in the Citie . Yf I will proue that a man beynge accused of murder vniustly , did not offend : I may reason both from the time , and the place . The man was killed in the fieldes , aboute iij. of the clocke in the after none , all whiche time this other man came not abrode . No , he loked not out of his house all that daye . Ergo this man dyd not kyll hym . Clodius was accused at Rome that he had made a spoyle of the reliques in the temple of Bona Dea , where as he at the same tyme when this dede was thought to be done , was at Interamna , a village in the countrye beside Rome . Quintilian saith thus . Thou hast killed an adulterer , which the law doth permitte , but bycause thow haste kylled the same man in a brothels house , thou art worthye to dye thie selfe . Notwithstandinge these . i● . places are rather vsed of the Rethoriciens , than emong the logiciens , for when a man is taken of suspection we go aboute to proue hym faultie by diuerse coniectures . As if he ware about the same place , at the self same time , whan a man was slayne , and also had his sworde aboute hym : we coniecture that he might haue killed hym . Againe if we perceiue one to be a riotous felowe , readie to fight with euery bodie , accompanyeng with naughtie packes , and euermore at one end of al frayes , waxyng pale when he is apprehended , shakynge for feare , or runnyng awaye , when he should be taken , we suspect suche a one that he is not altogether cliere . Therfore Oratours do vse to marke thinges that go before the facte , as whether he hated the man or no , or what gaine he might haue by his death , and also obserue thynges ioyned with the faulte , as changynge of hewe , when he is apprehended , or his sworde to be blodie , or any parte of his apparell , and thyrdlye thei note what followeth . that is , if he ran awaye , if he cannot tell his tale plainlye , and so they conclude as they are led by suspection . Some Argumentes are necessary , some probable , as thus , from the consequent . Such a woman is brought in bed with a childe , Ergo she hathe had the compaignie of man . Suche a man had a bluddye sworde in his hande straight after the death of his neyghbour , euen in the same fildes wher his neyghbour was slaine , Ergo it is like this man hath slayne hym . All which argumentes are deriued from the place called Contingentia as I wyll shewe it hereafter .

¶ Of wordes annexed , or knitte to the substaunce , called Connexa .

AS touchyng wordes knitte , ye maie vnders●and , that they are ioyned outwardly to the Subiect , and geue a name vnto him , according as they are . As Richesse are ioyned to a riche man . For where as Crassus is called a man by his owne substaunce , yet not withstandyng by his richesse , he is called a riche man .

So he that hath a wife , is called a housband . He that hath a maister , is called a seruaunt . He that hath a father , is called a sonne . Wordes knitte , are deuided diuersly , for some are called such as are nighe , & touching the substaunce . As to be full of fish , is agreyng to the water , to be full of grasse , is annexed or agreing to the earth , to be cloudy is annexed or agreyng to the aier . Again woordes knitte , are called those thynges , that a man weareth , as to weare a cote , a iacke , a harneis , to haue shoen , to be merie , to be dustie , and al such as are casual to man . Some are called , annexed or agreyng , which are knitte to man , and thynges not worne vpon his backe , but farther of , and rather perceiued by vnderstandyng● then knowen by eiye sighte . As nobilite , powre , fame , aucthorite . To bee an Officer , a Mayour , a Sherieue , lord Chauncelour , comptrollour , or any other officer in the common weale , all these are annexed to their inferiour , ouer whome thei haue aucthorite . In this point differ wordes knitte , called annexed , from wordes adioyned , called adiacentia , that all adiacentes , or woordes adioyned cannot be with out the subiect , as heat , colde , whitenes , or any other like cannot be , except they be comprehended with in some Subiecte . For it is propre to euery Accident , to be in some one thing conteining him . If ther be nothyng conteynyng , then the Accident cannot be . Not withstandyng , wordes knitte , are so placed , that one is without the other , & may be , either of them seuerally , if the one happen to perishe : as a housebande is without the substaunce of his wife , and although his wife dye , yet the housband maie be onliue , sauyng that he loseth his name to be called housband , but if a wise man die , wisedom must de●a●e also , because it must ne●es be in some one subiect , or els it cannot be .

¶ Of Accidentes .

THose are here called Accidents which both them selues , and the thyng also , maie be together , one● with another , & also may be away , the one , from the other .

¶ There be v. of this sort .

Thynges chauncyng . The name of a thyng . Sentences of the sage . The likenesse . Thinges compared together .

¶ Thinges chauncyng called Contingentia .

THose accidentes are called thinges chauncing , which chaunce about a thing so , that whether these thinges chaunce , or no , the thing it selfe may be , or though the thing be not , these may so ●●aunce to be . As palenesse , which thing may chaunce before sicknes , & thesame also may chaunce though a man be not sicke . And a man also maie be sicke , and yet nothing pale at all . Likewise loue and feare . A man maie loue , although he feare not , a man may again feare , although he loue not .

¶ The diuersitie of thre diuerse places .

Wordes adioyned , wordes knit to another , & wordes chauncyng to a thyng differ thus , that in woordes adioyned called adiacentia , the cause why thynges are so named , is euer in the subiect neither can the wordes adioyned continue , except thei be comprehended within some one substaunce . Wordes knit , are of suche sorte that by namyng one , the other is strayght knowen . As when I name a Scholemaister , I signifie scholers also , although I do not expresselie name them . But in wordes chauncyng called Contingentia , we must at the lest compare .ii. together , that we maie better knowe them to be of this place . Therfore if I name this worde ( craft ) by it self , without any further consideracion , then it is an adiacent , or a worde adioyned . If I name this worde ( seruaunt ) crafte is referred to the place called a word knit , considering craft is mencioned in respect of the seruant . If I say thus ( a craftie seruaunt ) then these two are considered to be in thys place called Contingentia , whiche is a place of wordes chancing to a thing so , that whether they chaunce or no , the thyng it self maie be notwithstanding . As a seruaunte may be , & yet not craftie . Again one may be craftie , & yet not a seruant .

¶ The diui●ion of thynges chauncyng .

Some go before the thyng , somme are ioyned with the thyng , some folow after the thyng .

Thynges chauncyng before . As thus . The skie was very red this mornyng . Ergo we are like to haue rayne or nyght .

Thinges ioyned with the matter at the very instaunte . As thus . Anger is in olde men . ofte fetchyng of wind declares a sickenes of the lunges . If the bequether or maker of any wil , be onliue , the will taketh no place , and maie be voyde . Suche a one goeth ga●● in his apparell , spendeth with the bes● , & yet hath nothyng to maintain his charges . Ergo it is like that he commeth by his goodes noughtely .

Thynges happenyng after . Suche a one is well learned . Ergo he hath gone well to his boke heretofore .

¶ The name of a thyng , or the interpretation of a worde .

THe interpretacion or name of a thyng is a worde made by the agrement of men , to signifie this , or that . As P●ilosophus is y● man whatsoeuer he be , that hath a desire , and a loue , to the knowledge of wysdome . Therfore if ye will expound what a philosopher is , you maie reason thus , from the interpretation of the worde . Whosoeuer he be that hath an earnest loue to philosophie , and seketh knowledge thereof , that man is a philosopher .

Cato hath an earnest loue to philosophie , and seketh knowledge therof .

Ergo Cato is a philosopher .

Againe the interpretacion of a thing is then thought to be , when a metaphore or translation is vsed , & the meanyng thereof taken . As when this word Ignis ( fire ) betokeneth loue . Where as of the owne nature it signifieth fire , as we reade in Ouide , thus .

Quis enim celauerit ignem

Lumine qui semper proditur ipse suo

Who can kepe close the fire , or hide the burnyng heate .

That doth betraie it selfe alwaye with lyght of flame so great .

Wherin is nothyng els signified but loue , whiche is so hote of it selfe that it must nedes breake out into flames , and shewe it selfe at one tyme , or other .

¶ The generall Rule .

To whome the interpretation of a nowne doth agree , to the same also the nowne it selfe agreeth .

¶ The maner of reasonyng .

Suche a chylde is called dawson , And he maie well be so called , for his father is but a dawe .

¶ Of the place called authoritie , otherwise named sentences of the sage .

AL suche testimonies maie be called sentences of the sage , whiche are brought to confirme anye thyng , either taken out of olde authours , or els suche as haue bene vsed in this commune life . As the sentences of noble men , the lawes in anie realme , quicke saiynges , prouerbes , that either haue bene vsed heretofore , or bee nowe vsed . Histories of wise philosophers , the iudgementes of learned men , the commune opinion of the multitude , olde custome , auncient fashions , or anie suche like . Testimonies , are two waies considered . For either they are such as pertayne to God , or els to man . Those authorities which come from God , and are spoken by the holy ghost , are vndoubtedly true , neither can they be false : therefore we ought moste reuerentlie to receiue the worde of God , & agre to such textes as are writen & spoken , euen as though we heard God him selfe speake , with liuely voice vnto vs . Mans autority hath no such great force , although noble men , learned Philosophers , and stoute capitaines haue pronounced manie thynges moste wiselie . For although Aristotle saieth that the worlde neither had beginnyng , nor yet at any tyme shall haue endyng : I maye reiecte this saiyng , ( if anie man bryng me it for his confirmation , ) although this great philosopher did pronounce thesame . For except I be perswaded bi reason , it is in my choyse , either to admit , or to refuse such authorities . Not withstandyng we shoulde not forsake wyse mens wordes rashely , but with a modest answer desire the aduersarie not so muche to sticke to his authoritie , as to proue the same by some good reason . In prophane thynges ye maye reason affirmatiuely very well , as thus . The best thynges are first to be learned , for so doth Quintilian teache . Nusquam tuta fides . It is hard trustyng any bodie . For so saieth Virgile . But I can not reason negatiuelie , when I bryng mine authoritie out of prophane aucthours . For I reason amysse if I saie . There is no suche disease called the Frenche pocques , because Galene the chiefe of phisicians neuer maketh mencion in al his bokes of any such disease . For this euell hath crept in , sence his tyme , through the noughtines of men . And although it were then , yet may it be that he neuer hearde of it . Hereunto myght be added all suche sentences as by the lawe of nature are graffed in man . As these folowyng . Do as thou wouldest be done vnto . Be thankefull to hym , that doth the a pleasure . Honoure thy father , & thy mother . Know there is a God . He that hath not these opinions naturally fastened in his hart , he maie iustely bee thought rather a beast , then man endued with reason .

In matiers of scripture I may reason both affirmatiuely , and negatiuely , Christ saith to his disciples . Rege● Gentium dominantur , vos autem non sic . Kinges beare rule ouer countreis , but you must not doo so . Therfore no ministres shoulde haue any temporall powre , because Christ saith so . Ye may reason negatiuely thus , we reade not in all the scripture from Genesis to the reuelation of sainct Ihon , that euer there was frier , moncke , nonne , or chanon , ergo let them go from whens they came . We reade not in the scripture that worshipping of ymages , was euer allowed to be Laie mens bookes . Therefore , take down suche idolles , and let them serue for other vses .

The generall rule for prophane authorities . That whiche is allowed by al wise men , or at the leaste by the better part : no man ought rashely to gaine saie it , or thus . Euery connyng man must be beleued in his owne art .

¶ The maner of reasonyng .

Aristotle thought best that dronkerds should haue double punishement . therfore they deserue it . By textes of the scripture we may better reason the matter , as thus . Cursed be he that doth the worke of the lord guilefully , saith the Prophete . Ergo euil Bishops , or loytering pastours are accursed of God .

¶ Of the similitude , or likenesse .

A Similitude , is when .ii. thinges or more , are so compared together , that euen as in the firste there is one propertie , so in the other there is a like propretie , accordyng to bothe their natures seuerally obserued . For like as water by continuance weareth a stone , so there is nothyng so hard , but by time it maie be compassed , or brought to passe . As spiders make their own copwebbes without any other helpe : so some good felowes can bring vp newes & tel stran̄g tales without any hearyng , when there is not one woorde true . As the palme tree beyng ouerlaide with weightes , riseth higher , & buddeth vpward more freshelye : so a noble stomake vexed with muche aduersite is euermore the s●outer . And this ought diligently to be obserued that the thing which is brought to make the Similitude , be like vnto that which is proued .

¶ The maner of findyng out a similitude .

In euery cause that we do purpose to handle at large , we must obserue diligently , what thynges are spoken by translacion , that is , from the propre signification , to a meanyng that is not propre . As speakyng in the prayse of a Kyng , and callyug hym the bright son of the yearth , I may gather a similitude by this worde ( sonne ) and make it thus . Euen as the sonne onely geuet● light to all the whole yearth : so there ought to be in a commune weale one king that should be ruler ouer all .

¶ The gen●rall rule .

Of similitudes there is like iudgement , that is , euen as we think of the one , so we maie thynk of the other .

¶ The maner of reasonyng .

As a dogge standyng at the table● side , eateth that vp by and by whiche his maister hath cast to him , and euer loketh for more , & more : So some when they haue receiued a liuyng for which they hoped before , by and by they are ready , to take another , and although they be full , yet still they are hungry .

¶ Of thynges compared .

THinges are compared toguether in one thirde worde , whereunto they both do agre , as thus . If thefte be worthye death , then murther is worthy no lesse . Here ye se that thefte , & murther are compared together in one third worde , which is death .

Comparacions are deuided twoo maner of waies , for either they bee equal , or not equall . They are equal in this wise . if the father haue aucthorite ouer his sonne , he hath also aucthorite ouer his daughter .

¶ The generall rule .

Where thinges are equal , ther must nedes be equall Iudgement . Comparacions are vnequall , when I reason either fro● the greater to the lesse , or els from the lesse , to the greater . From the greater to the lesse , ye may reason thus . If a Capitain with his whole companie be not able to sacke a toune , muche lesse one base souldiour can be able to do it . The scholemaster cannot vnderstande the Greke , or the Hebrue toungue , muche lesse can the scholer , whiche neuer learned either of them .

From the lesse , to the greater , ye may reason affirmatiuely , as thus . Children can suffre muche cold , and cannot young men beare a frost ? Custome beareth swynge , and shall reason take no place ? Women haue died for there contrey , therfore may not men be ashamed to feare death ? Noble menne are desirous to haue a good horskeper that can kepe their horses well , and they spare not to geue great stipendes to suche , & shall thei not muche more be desirous , to haue a good scholmaster , that might Godly bryng vp their children , in vertue and wisedome ? If a horse bee not well broken , the awner will se that he maie be made gentle : & shall not a man seyng his naturall child , euill brought vp , take paines , and se hym brought to some good order ? We can se a spauain , a splent , a ring bone , or suche other disease in a horse , and shall we not be as ready to loke , that there bee no fautes in our children , or in the teacher , to whom we geue the charge , to bryng theim vp in learnyng , and good maners ?

¶ The generall rule .

If that which semeth to be the greater , be not added , neither shal be added , that whiche is the lesse . Again , if that , whiche is lesse be added , that which is greater , shal be added also .

¶ The maner of reasonyng .

The scholer vnderstandeth Latine , ergo his scholemaster also hath knowlege in thesame toungue . Negatiuely thus . If God will not allowe a vowe , made by the daughter , without the knowlege of her father , although the vowe bee but for one daie : how muche lesse shal that mariage take place , when young folke make priuie contractes , without the good wil obteined of their parentes .

¶ The vse .

This place helpeth muche to exhort especially , when wee reason from the lesse , to the greater , or contrary . Neither can any one that teacheth , wante thuse hereof , if thei purpose , that their saiynges shall take place .

¶ Of repugnauncie .

A repugnaunce , is suche a disagreyng state of thynges that no one thyng can be thesame , that thother is , by one nature , or substance , as thus . Manne , and vertue , the one cannot be the●ame , that the other is .

¶ The ●euision .

Thynges repugnant , are deuided in to discordantes , and into wordes differyng one from another , by any maner of meanes .

¶ Of discordantes , called Opposita .

Discordantes , are when onely one worde or sentence , is contrary to another , so that the one cannot be thesame that the other is , nor yet bothe at one tyme , can be in one , & thesame subiect , as hote , and cold , the father & the sonne , sight , & blyndnes , night and dar●enes .

¶ There be .iiii. of th●● sort . Contraries . Relatiues . Priuation . Contradiction .

COntraries , are suche discordantes , as cannot be , at one , and thesame tyme in one substance : notwithstandyng , thei maie both seuerally be , in two subiectes , or substances● at one , and thesame time . As whitnes , blacknes , vertue , and vice , wisedome , and foolishnes . Contraries are two waies considered , for some be suche that if one be not , the other must nedes folowe , and thei are called in Latine , Contraria immediata , that is to saie , contraries , where nothyng commeth betwixt : as thus . A wise man , a foole . Uertue , vice . Faith , vnbelief . Al these are suche , that if the one bee not in a man , the other must nedes be . As thus . Such a one is wise , ergo he is no foole . If a man be not wise , it must nedes be , that he is foolishe . Wee are saued by faith : ergo we are condemned by vnbelief

Again , other contraries be so , that though the one be awaie , yet the other foloweth not therfore of necessitie . For blacke , and white , be contrary , and yet thei be not so contrary , that if the white colour be not , the other must nedes be . For a manne maie be high coloured , or sallowe coloured , and yet not blacke . Therefore in suche contraries , where some thyng may be put betwixt the extremes , it is no good reason to say , that if the one be not , the other muste nedes be . Note further , that all discordantes are not contrary , accordyng to their generall worde , or common accidentes , but according to their proper difference● For if we reason thus .

Fire is an Element .

Ergo water is none .

The argument is not good , for fir● and water are not contrary , accordyng to their generall woorde , whiche agreeth to theim bothe , but accordyng to their proper differences , as in that , fire is hote and dry , it is contrary to water , whiche is colde and moyste . Thus some , that mainteined counterfeicte chastitie , were wont to reason against Mariage .

Uirginitie is good .

Therfore mariage is not good .

Whereas Uirginitie , and mariage , are not contrary , accordyng to their generall woorde , whiche is ( good ) but accordyng to their proper difference . As thus .

Uirginitie is a single life , without knowlege of carnall acte .

Therefore mariage is not so .

Therefore this worde ( good ) in the aboue rehersed argument , doth signify a thyng graunted of God , and alowed by his will , whiche doth aswell , comprehende mariage , as it doth virginitie therefore this argument , is of no more force , then if I should saie .

Iustice is good .

Ergo temperance is not good .

And yet there is no man , but wil saie , that bothe these two vertues are good Or thus merily .

Gentlemen haue soules .

Ergo poore men haue none .

Whereas God hath geuen , bothe high and lowe , riche and poore , the spirite that s●all liue euer . But this I speake , to set furthe more at large , the fondenesse of the other argument , concernyng Mariage .

¶ The generall rule .

But awaie one of these contraries , where nothyng commeth betwixt , called immediata contraria , and thother must nedes folowe , whiche is not true in those contraries● where some thyng commeth betwixte theim , called contraria mediata .

RElatiues are those , whiche are compared emong themselfes , or els referred to some other . As a father , a sonne . A master , a seruaunt . A kyng , a subiect .

¶ The general rule .

If one of the relatiues be , the other muste nedes be : if the other be not , the other cannot be neither .

¶ The maner of reasonyng

Thou art my seruaunt , why doo●●● thou not knowe me , to be thy maister ? Thou art a subiect , and wilt thou take in han●e to rule ?

PRiuacion , is the absence of tha● thyng from a substance , whiche by nature , might haue been there●

The habite , is the hauyng of that thyng , in the substance , whiche natur● hath graunted to be there .

¶ The generall rule .

Euery priuacion , is the destruccion of that , whiche by nature was .

¶ The maner of reasonyg .

Suche a man is blynd :

Ergo he cannot se.

Blyndnesse , is called priuacion , because it is the absence of that thyng , whiche either by nature was , or might haue been , in the substaunce . Neither doth any mann● , call a stone blynd , because nature hath vtterly denied , the gift of seyng to all stones .

Synne is called priuacion , because it is the destruccion , of that great goodnesse , whiche God powred in man . And therefore God iustly punisheth those , that haue forsaken his grace .

¶ Sentences gainsaiyng , otherwise called , contradiccion .

Sentences gainsaiyng , are two proposicions , the one deniyng that , whiche the other affirmeth : as thus . Christ is in the Sacrament really : Christ is not in the Sacrament really . It cannot bee , but one of these two proposicions , must nedes be false .

¶ The generall rule .

If one of the twoo proposicions , be graunted to be true , the other must nedes be graunted to be false . Neither can it be , by any meanes possible , that both of them should either be true or false , at one , and thesame tyme . Alwaies prouided , that there be no doubtfulnes in the wordes : for if one worde signifie diuersely , then maie bothe proposicions , be either true , or false , at one , and thesame tyme . As thus .

The fleshe of Christ , profiteth greatly .

The fleshe of Christ , profiteth nothyng at all .

In these two proposicions , there is no contradiccion , or gainsaiyng , but that thei both maie be true , at one an● thesame time , consideryng thei are both diuersely taken . Christes fleshe eaten and chewed , with our tethe , profiteth nothyng , Christes fleshe torne vpon the crosse , profiteth muche , as the whiche purchaseth to al beleuers , life for euer

¶ The maner of reasonyng .

If we be iustified frely , through the onely merites of Iesus Christe : Then this is false , that we are not iustified , onely through the merites of Iesus Christ : but the other is true : ergo this is false .

¶ The vse .

Of Priuacion , Contradiccion , and of contraries that immediatly folowe : condicional argumentes are made , with the addicion of some one coniunccion , of the which , when the one is true , the other must nedes be false , as thus . Either the soule is immortall , or els it is not immortall , but the first is true : ergo the second is false .

¶ Of wordes differyng .

THen haue wee the vse of this place , when we reason & proue that one thyng is not thesame . that another is , as thus . King Lud is not thesame , that Iulius Cesar , or Brutus was : Kyng Lud buylded London , of whom the citee had his name , beyng called Luddes toune , and afterwarde , by alteracion of letters , called London . Ergo neither Cesar , nor Brutus , builded thesame . Discordantes called opposita are not thesame that wordes differyng are , called differentia . For asmuche as where discordantes be● one thyng onely is set against another one . As for example . Nothyng can be set against brightnes , as discordant , but onely darkenesse , nothyng can be set against heate , but onely cold , and so in other . But in this place , there maie many thynges differ from some one thyng , and whatsoeuer is not thesame that another is , maie bee called a worde differyng , in Latine , differens , or disparatum . Socrates is a man , ergo he is not an ore , a stone , a horse or any other thyng els .

Thynges differ foure waies , either by nombryng . As euery singuler man , diff●r●th one from another . Iames is one , and Ihon is another . Other differ in th●ir kynde , when thei are comprehended vnder diuerse kindes , as Be●uuis of Hampton , & Arundell his horse : or els Alexander , and Bucephalus . Other differ by the generall worde , when thei are comprehended , vnder diuerse generall wordes , as Baptisme , & matrimonie , th one comprehended vnder a Sacrament of God , the other vnder a certain ordinaunce of God . Lastly , wordes differ by their moste generals , when thei are placed in diuerse predicamentes A kyng , manhod , th one is placed emong the relatiue , is the seconde in qualitie .

¶ The generall rule .

We cannot make thynges , that doe muche differ , to be of one nature .

¶ The maner of reasonyng .

We reason from wordes differyng , negatiuely altogether .

From suche as differ in nomber , we reason thus .

Suche a one is called Thomas , therfore he is not thesame , that Ihon is . Peter is not Paule , nor yet Paule is Peter . Faithe is not woorkes , nor yet workes are faithe .

From suche as differ in kynd , thus ,

I am a man , therefore I should not be vsed like a brute beast .

From such as differ by the general word .

I did borowe plain clothe of the , & why doest thou require raysed veluet of me ?

From suche as differ in predicament .

Uertue is a qualitie of the mynde , therfore it is no substance .

AFter knowlege atteined , exercise is moste necessary . And happie shal he be , that vnto skill , addeth practise , for then learnyng is best confirmed , when knowlege is put in vre .

Therfore consideryng , I haue sette forthe the places , I thynke it necessarie after knowlege of the same , to describe matters by euery one of them , as thei lye in order : that other maye lykewyse , when anye question commeth in controuersie , go thorowe the places themselfes with it , and examine euery worde , by euery seueral place .

And to make this thyng more plain , I wyll go through the places with one certaine worde , and loke what helpe I shall finde there for knowlege of the same . The worde shall be ( a kyng ) or ( a Magistrate . )

The definition .

The definition of a magistrate . Euery Kyng , or magistrate , is the minister of god , for a good ende , to the punishynge of naughtye persones , and to the confortyng of godlye men .

The general rule .

The Minister of God .

The kynde .

Either a tiraunt , or a godlye kyng , th one ruleth accordyng to his lust , the other accordyng to right , and Iustice .

Wordes yoked .

The officer , the office , to beare an office , if the office can not be spared , the officer can not be spared .

Adiacentes necessarily ioyned .

Wisedome , earnest labour , cunnyng in sciences , skylfull both of warre , and peace , these all must nedes be in euerye Magistrate .

Adiacentes adioyned casually .

To be liberal , to be frugall , to be of a temperate life , all these happen to be in good magistrates .

Dedes necessary .

To defende Religion , to enact godlie lawes , to punishe offendours , to defend the oppressed , all these are necessarye in a kyng , and are neuer found in any tiraunt .

The thyng conteynyng .

Moses , Dauid , Salomon , Ezechia● , Iosias . Charles the Emperour . Edwarde the .vi. of that name . Kynge of England .

The efficient cause .

God himselfe , or els the ordinaunce of God .

The second efficient cause .

Unquiet people , rebelles , disobedient people , are the cause why magistrates are ordeyned .

The ende of a magistrate .

This ende he muste nedes obserue that alwayes the people lyue in quietnes , and in honeste conuersation passe their whole life .

The effecte , or els thynges done by a Magistrate .

Peace is made , the realme enriched , all thinges plentuous , but where a tiraunt ruleth , al thinges are contrary .

The authoritie .

The .xiij. to the Romaines , let euery soule be subiecte to the powers .i. Peter .ij. Be subiecte to the kyng .

Thynges inc●dent .

The scepter is a token of Iustice , euen as the sword is a signe of reuengement , or wrathe paiyng of Subsidies , taxes , tributes , rent , or any suche like , yeomen of the gard , and all other walters , souldiours in warre , the obedience of the subiectes , the honour geuen vnto him , triumphes made , runnyng at the tylte , fightynge at the Barriers fightynge at the tourney . Al these are contingentia to a king , that is , although these thinges be not in a common wealth , yet maye there be a kynge , yea and although there be no kynge in some commune weale , yet these thynges may be euery echone of them , as it was in Athenes where the people had the rule of the common weale , and all was referred to theire Iudgement .

¶ Similitudes .

That whiche the shepeherd is to the shepe , the same is the magistrate to his subiectes . That which the maister of the shippe , is to the ship , or the maister of an houshold , to his house , or the head to the whole bodie : the same is the magistrate to his subiectes .

¶ Thynges compared .

Seruauntes must be obedient and subiect to there maisters with all reuerence , as we reade in the scripture : howe muche more then should the subiectes be obedient to their kyng and souereigne lorde , whiche by the ordinaunce of God , is appointed to rule , and to haue gouernaunce ouer them .

Ye maie se by this one example , that the searchyng of places , ministreth argumentes plentifully . For if ye wyll proue a magistrate necessarie , ye maie reason from the definition , from the causes , from the authoritie , from the thyng conteynyng , from the adiacentes , from the similitude , and make good reasons for the purpose . Not withstandyng , I thynke it not necessarie that ye searche all the places at euerye tyme , and for euerye matter : but that ye searche moste parte of them . And although we cannot finde a good argument in euerie one of them , yet it is wel if we maie gather but thre or .iiij. good argumentes . As when we go into a gardyne , we shall not finde all herbes growing there , although we searche euery corner : so when we loke in all that places of inuention for the profe of ou● matter , we shall not finde in euerie place a good argument for oure purpose . Not withstandyng it is moste necessarie , either when we will proue a matter oure selfe , or els trie an others labour , which is set forth at large most eloquentlie : to bring the whole some of his long tale to these places , & make an argument in thre lynes of that , whiche he dilateth , into thre shietes .

And for our selfe , if we wil reason a matter earnestlie , it shal be profitable to see oure owne argumentes before hand deriued out of the places , the whiche shall make vs more bolde to speake , when we shall euidently perceiue oure owne reasons suerly grounded . And the better able we shal be to confirme our owne cause , & to auoyde all obiections , when we knowe suerly by this arte , wherunto we maie leaue . For although other shall empece oure doynges , and wrest oure wordes , yet we shal be able euermore to kepe oure owne , when we playnelie perceaue whereof oure argument hath his ground Many speake wisely which neuer read logique , but to speke wisely with a iudgement , and to knowe the verie fountaine of thynges : that can none do , except they haue some skill in this art .

Therefore what diuersitie there is betwixt a blynd man , & hym that seeth , the same difference is betwixte a wise man vnlearned , and a wyse man learned . Ye haue sene the commoditie of this art by this one word ( magistrate ) which I dyd applie to euery place , that myght geue any light for the makyng of an argument . Nowe ye shall haue a question set forth , and both the partes of a proposition referred to the places of inuention , that thereby ye maie knowe wherein the places do agree , & wherein they do not . For where as the places agree ( that is to saie , al thynges are referred to the one , that are referred to the other ) there the proposition is good , and the latter parte of the proposition , is truly spoken of the first . But where the places do not agree ( that is to saie , some thynges are referred to the one worde , that are not referred to the other ) ther the thinges themselues can not agree . I will vse this question for an example . whether it be lawfull for a priest to marie a wyfe or no. And first of all I will examine a Priest , and applie hym to all the places . Next after that wee will refe● a wife to all the places , & se when we haue done , where in these .ij. do agre , and wherein they do not agree .

¶ From the definition .

A Preacher is a clerck or shepeherd which will giue his life for his shepe , enstructed to sette forth the kingdome of God , and desierouse to liue vertuousely : a faithfull , and a wise steward whom the lorde doth set ouer his house , that he maie gyue the householde seruauntes meate , in due time .

¶ From the generall worde .

A minister a seruaunt , a holie man , a gospeler , the minister of God should be vpright in his liuyng , faithfully bestowyng the wordes of truth .

¶ From the kynde .

Peter , Paul , Ihon Baptist , Esaie , Esdras , and Steuin , Ambrose beyng a temporall man was after that a minister of the Churche . Chrisostome became of a lawer , an ernest preacher of goddes worde . yea Peter & Andrewe both ware fishers , therefore temporal men may be called , if they be worthie , and desire this spirituall function .

¶ From the Propertie .

To be miete to teache , to be godly wise , to do , and to teache all thynges that they are commaunded . Sainct Hierome is his Epistle to Nepotianus , as touchyng the life of Preachers , saith thus . I will not haue the pleade causes , & to be abrabblyng ianglar without all reason , but I will haue the to be a faithfull minister of the Sacramentes , and very skilfull in the lawes of the Lorde .

¶ The whole .

To be brought vp in the scripture● euen from his youth , to be godly in conuers●cion , and wholly to be enstructed with all thynges , necessarie for a preacher . whoso euer is thus armed , is worthie to be a minister , in the Churche of God . This Argument is deriued from the whole .

¶ The partes .

To inuent matier out of the scripture , accordyng to the aptnes of his heares , to decke his doynges handsomly , to place his sentences in order , to remember what he speaketh , and to vtter his wordes distinctly , plainly , and with lowde voice .

¶ Thynges yoked together .

A preachyng , a Preacher , to do the worke of a Preacher . Timoth. iiij . He that by his preachyng edefieth , the same man is a preacher .

¶ Thynges cleauyng , or adioyned to the substaunce .

Labor , diligence , witte , knowledge , sobriete , gentlenes , vertue , mariage , an earnest desire to bring vp his childern wel , with other such . A bishop must be without fault , the housband of one wife , watchefull , sober , modest , herberous , apte to teache , no greate dryuckar of wine , no fightar , not giuen to filthie lucre , but vpright , voide from brawlyng , from couetousnes , &c. i. Timoth. ii .

¶ Dedes done .

To feade Christes flock , to put his life in daunger for the flocke committed to his charge , to bryng vp his flock & famuly in the feare of God , in the knowledge of his woorde , and in due obseruyng of the same .

¶ The thyng conteynyng .

Hierome in his first boke of the Commentaries which he made vpon the Galathians .j. cap. Let vs not thinke that the Gospell resteth in the woordes of Scripture , but in the sense , not in the outwarde rynde , but in the very hart , not in the leaues , but in the very roote of reason . Let the woordes of Christe dwell plenteously in you , with al wisdome . Collos. iii.

¶ The matier .

The woord of God . The olde Testament , & the new . Hieremie the first . Behold , I haue giuen my woordes in to thy mouth .

¶ The shappe , or forme .

The shappe may be taken of the conuersation , speche , spirite , or the maner of the preachers liuyng .

¶ The efficient cause .

God himselfe , the Scripture , good prechers , Euangelistes , the Lord will giue his worde , to those that preache , plentefully . Psal● lxvii . I haue graffed , Appollo hath watered , but God geueth encrease .

¶ The ende .

The ende of preachyng is , that the wicked might be conuerted to repentaunce , and the iust man kept in his vpright liuyng . Ezechiel , iii.

¶ Thinges done by vertue of the cause .

To winne men to Christe , to make mens consciences quiete , to moue them to prayer . When Peter made a sermon , out of hand there was about .iij. thousand conuerted to the faith of the gospel , that selfe same day .

¶ What is appointed to hym , and propre to this reasonyng .

To stude ernestlie , and searche the scriptures that he maie proue a true minister of God , to liue a good life , & seke to kepe a household , that he maie be herberous .

¶ The place .

The churche , the pulpite , the vestiarie , the chauncell . I spake openly to in the sinagoge saith Christ , and in the Churche , to all the Iewes that came thyther , & I spake nothing in corners .

¶ The time .

A young man , and elderly man , and old man , to preache early and late .i. Timothie .iiij. Let no man contemne thy youthe .

¶ Thynges annexed .

To haue some stipende for his preachyng . worthy is the labourer to haue his wagies . Matth. x.

The other places folowyng , because they are not absolutely considered , but referred to some other , & euer hauyng respect to the next worde , which is rehersed in the question of that which wente before , they cannot seuerally handle any one woorde : and therefore ye must marke the whole question , and in one Argument comprehend aswell the wife , as the minister . Nowe therfore ye shall haue this worde , vxor ( a wife ) described through out the places .

¶ The definition .

A wife , is a woman that is lawfully receiued into the felouship of life , for the encrease or gettyng of childern , and to auoide fornicacion .

¶ The generall worde .

A wife , is a woman .

¶ The kynde .

A chaiste wife , a learned wife , a manerly wife , or els ye may vse the propre names of women , for the kyn●● it selfe , as Lucretia , Cornelia , Portia , Hipsicratea , &c.

¶ The propertie .

To bryng forth childern .

¶ The whole .

The whole woman herselfe altogether .

¶ The partes .

The heade , the breast , the armes , the backe , the thighe , the hart , the vaines , blood , and flesh .

¶ Wordes ioyned .

Housewifely to do the worke of a wife . She doth the dutie of a good wife : Ergo she is a wife . She haudleth all thinges housewifely : Ergo she is a good houswife .

¶ Wordes adioyned .

The loue in mariage , care ouer the famulie , keping of herself to one housbande , be obedient vnto hym , loue of her children , losse of her childern .

¶ Dedes done .

To be obedient , to be shrew shaken , to bryng vp her childern well , to liue in mariage with her housbande both at bed , and at borde , accordyng to the wil of God .

¶ The thyng conteynyng .

The woman her selfe .

¶ The matier , and forme .

The bodie , and soule , or the woman and the man , are the matter of mariage , the consunction it selfe is the forme of it .

¶ The efficient cause .

God himselfe , the Scripture , let a man be the housband of one wife . They shal be .ii. in one fleshe . The cause that one woman is maried to a seueral person , and liketh him before al other , and the man her in like wise : is god himselfe first , that kindleth such affections , next after , their consent , and full agrement doth enseue .

The ende .

To bryng forth children , and to kepe h●m sanf , and to auoyde synne .

The effecte .

Children godlie enstructed , the house wel ordred .

Thynges apointed for some ende .

To please her husbande , to lyue a good life , to prouide thynges necessarie for the furniture of her housholde .

The place .

The house , the chambre of wedlock , the halle , or parlour .

The tyme .

A younge woman , or an olde . Aristotle saith , it is mete for men to marye at .xxxvj. for maidens to marie at .xviij. but then was then , and now is now , al thynges in this worlde are ripe before there tyme . I meane not that honestie it self is so , for I neuer knew it ripe as yeat , but euer rawe . But thus ye see the time of mariage was not so hastely loked for , as it is now . In this worlde a child shal scant be out of his shel , but he shal be suer to one or other , the which I doubte , whether it maye be called a mariage or no : for those that be of ripe yeres , no man doubteth , but if thei can agree both , & haue there frendes good wyll ( for that ought to be sought for , and also obtained ) the mariage is allowed before God .

Wordes anne●●d or knitte together .

Mariage is referred to this place , for a wife is so called , bycause the hath a housband , neyther can any woman be called a wife , except she haue an husband , therfore she is placed emonge the wordes annexed , that is , where one thynge is knitte to an other , so that the one cannot be , except the other be also .

Nowe that we haue drawen these wordes , the preacher , and the wyfe , after this sort , through out the places , so far as we could : we shuld compare them together , and se wherein theido agree , and wherein they varie . Let vs compare the definitions together , and we shall finde sumwhat euen there , where these wordes be ( desiryng to liue vertuously ) whiche shall gyue light for an argument , as thus .

Whosoeuer desireth to liue vertuously , must mary a wyfe .

Euery true preacher of gods word , desireth to liue vertuously

Ergo euery true preacher must mary a wife

Now if mine aduersary wil deny the proposition at large , called the maior , then can I doe no good with it , except I finde somwhat in the definition of a wife , whiche is agreing to this aboue rehersed proposition . I finde in this worde ( wife ) that she is maried for the encrease of children , and to auoide fornication . Then I reason thus for the confirmation of my purpose by the argument called Sorites .

Whosoeuer desireth to liue vertuously , desireth to auoyd fornication .

Whosoeuer desiereth to auoyde fornication , desiereth mariage .

Ergo whosoeuer desiereth to lyue vertuously , desiereth mariage .

Againe the generall worde of bothe these definitions gyueth light for an argument . Euery wyfe is a woman , euery preacher is a man , and nature hath ordeyned that man and woman may liue in mariage , ( if they be so disposed ) of what degre , condition , or state , so euer they be , nothyng in all the scriptures to the coutrarye . Therfore I may reason thus .

What soeuer is a man , that same may marie a woman by gods ordinaunce .

Euery preacher is a man .

Ergo euery preacher may marie a woman by gods ordinaunce .

Euen as I haue doen in these places , comparynge one to an other , so ye may doe in the residew , and where ye se any thyng serueth for your purpose , that they agre together on bothe parties , ye maye vse the same : if they do not agre in some places , ye may refuse them , or els so mollyfye the thyng that suche repugnauncies maye not harme your cause at all . As where it is in the wordes adioyned that a woman is often ●imes ouerthwart , froward , disobedient careles ouer her children forasmuch as these be no causes of mariage , they shall not hynder mariage , for a godly man wyll beare al aduersitie , and suffre suche euill happe , and not therfore eschewe mariage , bycause these incommodities chaunce in mariage . Nowe I wil entre into the other places which doe not seuerally handle one word , but haue respecte euermore to an other , and so by the knittyng together of .ij. thyngs , or setting the one against the other , the trueth of oure purpose is espied , and the cause confirmed .

From the similitude .

As he is not to be compted a good gardiner , or a good orchard keper that is content with suche fruict as he hath alredy , only cherishyng his old trees , and hath no ●are neither to cut downe the olde , nor yet to fet newe graffes : so that man is to be compted no diligent member in the common weale , whiche beyng content with the present compaignie of men , hath no minde to encrease the nomber of people .

From authoritie .

If the greate workeman of thynges god almightie himselfe after the floud being reconciled to man made this law ( as we reade in scriptures ) that men shulde not liue single , but encrease and be multiplied , that the yearth might be filled : and seyng also that Christe himselfe sence that time hath allowed mariage by a miracle of chaungyng water into wine , which miracle was the first that he dyd vpon yearth : and seynge Paule also biddeth euery man that cannot liue chaste , to marie , and that it is better to marye , then to burne in filthie desires , and besides this willeth a bishop should be the husbande of one wife : it muste nedes be that preachers may lawful marye , aswel as any other temporal men .

From comparison of the lesse , to the greater .

It is a shame to se brute beastes obey the lawe of nature , and man , especiallye a learned man , and a preacher , like a stoute giaunt to striue with nature , & do contrarye to her biddyng .

From the greater to the lesse .

Yf the daughters of Lot doubted nothyng at the matter to lye with the● own father when he was dronke , thinkyng it better to prouide for encrease ●y filthie lust , than that māky●d shuld decay : shal not than a preacher whiche shulde haue regard for the encrease of mankynde , and also a desire to auoyde fornication , marye , if he be disposed , or other wise cannot liue chast ?

Of discordantes .

Ye maye reason from the contrarye thus , if virginitie be a thyng geuen to aungels and almost aboue mans reach , than mariage is a thynge propre to man .

From the Priuation .

If the lacke of children be a thynge hateful to man , than the hauing of children is a thyng ioyful to man .

From the rela●ion .

If a Bishop be allowed by the scri●tures to be a husbande , then is he allowed to haue a wyfe , and by the scriptures we reade that he is allowed to be a husbande , for Paule saith . Let a Byshop be the husbande of one wife , Ergo he is allowed to haue a wyfe .

¶ From wordes differyng

That worde is called a differyng worde , whatsoeuer it is , whiche is not the same , that an other is . As thus . A preacher is a man . Ergo he is no God . Priestes be men as other men be , and that some maried men ●re nowe haue well knowen . Therfore he maie marie a woman , if he cannot liue chast , consideryng there is nothyng in al the scriptures to the contrarie .

As I haue done for the office of a Prince , and the mariage of a priest , so maie I also go thorowe out the places with any other matter , that is nowe in controuersie .

As faith , workes , penaunce , the sacrifice of the masse , baptisme , the lawe , the gospel , synne , slaunder , rule , preachyng , and euery other thyng that man is bounde to knowe .

What is faith ? faith is a trust and full perswasion , whereby onely we d● assure vs that oure synnes be forgeuen vs , and we accepted as iust be●ore god , thorowe the merites of Christ .

Or thus .

Paule in the Epistle to the Hebrues . Faith is a sure confidence of thinges which are hoped for , and a certaintie of thynges , whiche are not sene .

¶ The generall worde .

A sure confidence , and a certaintie of thynges .

¶ The kynde .

A faith , whiche is occupied about thynges both corporall , and also spir●tuall , beleuyng that Christ was both God and man , by whome saluacion is atteined .

¶ The difference .

Thynges whiche are hoped for , & the whiche are not sene .

¶ The propretie .

To beleue assuredlie , and trust the promises of God .

¶ The partes of fayth .

The true faith hath no partes . All beit faith is diuersely taken in the scripture , for there is an historic●ll faith . As I do beleue that William Conqueror was kyng of Englande . There is also a iustifiyng faith , wherbi I loke assuredly to be saued . There is a faith , when one man faithfullie promiseth an other , to do this or that , and wil stande to his worde . There is also a faith of miracles , wherby the Apostles did cast out deuels , and helped oft the diseased persones .

¶ Thyn●es adioyned to faith , and also thynges annexed to ●ayth .

Hope , charite , to be good to the poore , to forbeare from wicked attemtes , to speake well of all , to eschewe excesse .

¶ The thyng conte●nyng .

The mynde of man , or the soule of man .

¶ The efficient cause .

The worde of God , or the holie ghoste , stirryng the harte of man , and cō●ortyng him in the merites of Christee passion .

¶ The ende of fayth .

Life euerlastyng , whiche is geuen frelie to euery beleuer that confesseth in his harte , Iesus to be Christ , and assuredly trusteth to be saued by the onely merites of his passion .

¶ Contraries .

Unbeliefe , desperation , whereby man falleth from God , to his vtter damnation for euer .

¶ The places of false conclusions , or deceiptfull reasons .

NOwe that I haue declared , what an argument is , what the places of inuencion bee , how thei serue for the confirmacion of any matter , howe euery thyng is made , in his due mode , and figure , and also shewed the obseruacion of many thynges , wher by any one , shall bothe be assured , that his argument is true , ( if it be made accordyng to the rules ) & also may know that it is false , if it be not made accordyng to the same rules : I wil from hence furthe , set out the maner , of deceiptfull argumentes , called in Latine , reprehensiones , or fallaces conclusiunculae , euen as Aristotle hath set them furth Albeit , ther is no argument so deceiptful , but thei al maie easly be auoyded , if the rules be marked , that are rehersed before , concernyng the true makyng of an argument . For accordyng to the old saiyng● Contrariorum eadem est doctrina . That is to saie , of contraries , there is one maner of doctrine , for he , whiche can handsomly set furth a lion . in his shape & portraicture , maie iudge with reason a Lion euill fauouredly painted , and can with litle difficultie , shewe the faultes in euery parte . so in like maner , if one can make an argument , accordyng to the rules aboue rehersed , in his due fourme and mode , he can tell also , when an argument is other wise made then the rules can beare

To some men , these places of crafte that folowe , maie seme straunge , and yet euen in waightie matters , the wicked haue deriued their subtle defences , from these deceiptfull corners . Therfore , because suche places , maie the rather be auoyded , and better knowen , I will bothe set them furthe at large , and also teache aswell as I am able , how to confute them . And first to confute , is nothyng els but to Iudge false packyng , and to vnlose by reason , thynges knit together by craft . Therefore the Logician , if he will doo his parte , muste not onely fence hymself , for confirmacion of his awne cause , but must also ouerthrow , the assercion of other , and also by reason , proue their saiynges to be false , whiche by deceipte , would inueigle the weake .

¶ The maner of confutacion twoo waies considered .

For the firste , either we purpose by disputacion , to answere fully to the matter , or els secondly ( if power want to compasse that ) wee seke some other meanes , to satisfie the manne , and that thre maner of waies , either by makyng the obieccion seme lesse then it is , or by bryngyng some other example against it , or els by sekyng some meanes , to go from the matter .

We make the argument appere slender , when we receiue it laughyngly , and declare by wordes , euen at the first , that it is nothyng to the purpose , and so abashe the opponent .

Again , we turne another argument in our aduersaries necke , when wee bryng another example against hym . Or els when wee charge hym , with a like faute , and laye some greater matter in his dishe . Lastly , we shift awaie , from the violence of our aduersarie , by makyng some digression , or geuyng occasion of some other talke , whereby the aduersary , either is driuen to forget his argument , or els beyng blynded with to muche matter , is forced either to go no further , or els to thynke hymself content . In all whiche maner of confutation , when we purpose to put a man to silence , I would wishe greate moderation to be vsed , and as litle aduantage taken by suche meanes , as may be possible . For although it be a poore help ( as in deede it is none other ) yet many a man loseth his estimacion , by muche vsyng of suche fashions . It is a world to se the subtle brain , of many braggyng bodies whiche with bold countenaunce , beare an outward shadowe of wisedome , hauyng onely the maskyng visage , & lackyng the naturall face . Thei wil stand stoutly in maintenance of an vntruth , and with countenaunce seme to shewe it : yea , and by their bold bearyng it out almoste perswade the hearers , that thei onely haue the true parte , and that other , are altogether deceiued . Thei wil saie , that no wise manne , would ones thinke that for shame , whiche their aduersarie , vttereth without all shame , yea , thei will saie , he speaketh too too babyshelye , and so dashe hym out of countenaunce , that he shall not well knowe what to saie , and last of all , thei wil trifle and toye merely , and so with imp●dent laughyng● make the other past speakyng . I will not putte any in this memento , as though thei ware gyltie : but their awne doynges , shall put in theimselfes , on Goddes name , for me . Notwithstandyng , I would gladly wish ( as I said before ) that there ware a measure vsed , and then suche doynges , might better be borne .

We answere to the matter , ij . wayes , either generally , or particularly . A generall answere is made thre wayes . First , when the faute is in the matter , that is to saie , in the wordes of either proposicion , when thei signifie diuerse thynges , or be diuersly applied , to shewe it plainly : & either denie it a● folishe , or els dissolue it , as doubtfull . As thus , the libertiues reason .

What soeuer is naturall , that same is not euill .

To synne is a thyng naturall .

Ergo to synne is not euill .

The seuerall or seconde proposicion is not true . And therfore the argument i● false , in the matter it self . For God did create the nature of man , pure and cleane , and saied , that all was good , whiche he made , at the firste creacion . Neither was it Goddes will , that man should altre his commaundement , and swarue from the pathe , of his appoynted lawes , but rather the suggestion of the deuill , and the weakenesse of oure fleshe , brought man to helle , death and dampnacion .

Again , when the faulte appereth in the forme , and maner of makyng an argument , we must declare that it is not framed● accordyng to the rules , whiche require that euery argument , should bothe be in mode and figure , as I haue before sufficiently declared . As thus .

All Magistrates do reuenge●

Euery bold hardy man doth reuenge

Ergo euery bold hardy man , is a Magistrate .

This argument , beyng made in the second figure , is of no force , consideryng it is in no mode , of thesame figure . For in this figure , all the proposicions , doo not affirme altogether , but one of them euer doth deny , as it appereth plainly , to hym that list to se.

Thirdly , when the fault is bothe in the matter , & in the maner of makyng , we must refuse the argument , & shewe the faultes plainly . As thus .

Euery slaughter , is synne .

Euery adulterie is synne .

Ergo euery adultry is slaughter

First the faulte is , that slaughter is not well defined . For in warre tyme , it is lawfull to kill , and euery man maie stand in his awne defence , against violent robbers , and rather kill then bee killed . Thirdly , the argument is in no mode● although it be in the second figure

The particular auoydyng of an argument , is .v. waies vsed , either by declaryng in what deceipfull subtiltie , it is conteined , or from which of the places , it is wrongfully deriued , or to shewe the wrong framyng , in euery mode and figure , or to make an argument , with a like reason , and so to auoyde the cause , or last of all , to vse the strange deceiptfull places , which shal be last rehersed .

And now will I tell particularly , euery deceiptfull argument , that when suche a subtle argument shal be vsed , either in disputacion , or priuate talke : any one may espie the fault out of hande and shewe in whiche of these capcious reasons , the subteltie resteth .

And first , a false conclusion , is a deceipte vsed in an argument , whereby one vnder the colour of truth , goeth aboute , to inuegle the hearer , or thus , a false conclusion is an argument , apperyng to the ignorant , as though it wer true , and yet is nothyng true at all . Aristotle doth deuide them into two partes . Some be called deceiptfull argumentes , when a doubtfull worde is vsed , or the kynd of speache is straunge , and maie be taken two waies , and that the fault is rather in the kynd and maner of speakyng , then in the matter or very thyng it selfe . Therefore those that be good grammarians , and know the properties of wordes , and are skylfull in the tongues , can gailie wel solute such errors as be made by the mystakyng of wordes , or by false vnderstandyng of phrases , whereof in verie deade manie heresies , and muche false doctrine haue had there first beginnyng . There be agayne some craftie subtilties whiche are not in the worde , but rather spring either of the euel knittyng together of the propositions , or els of the confusion of thynges , that is to saye , when one thyng is falsely appointed for an other , as in this proposition , a man maie easely espie false packyng whiche is in the second figure .

Fes No synne doth beget a man . ti Concupiscence doth beget a man no. Ergo concupiscence is no syn

The seconde proposition although it may deceiue a man , that is not ware , yet is it altogether false , because nature which is a thyng ordeyned of god , doth begette man , not the wicked impotencie or rather the destruction of nature , which afterward followed . Here it is playne that a mingle mangle is made of thynges , when generation which should be attributed to nature , is referred to the concupiscence , because it is in nature , and next adioynyng vnto it .

Nowe for the nombre and deuidyng of these deceiptfull argumentes , it is to vnderstande , that there be .xiij. whereof syx are called subtilties in the worde , or maner of speakyng , and the other .vij. ar called subtilties , without the worde , when thynges be confounded , and one taken for an other .

¶ Deceitpfull argumentes .

In the worde are these folowyng .

1. The doubtfulnesse of a worde . 2. The double meanyng of a sentence● 3. The ioynyng of wordes that shuld be parted . 4. The partyng of wordes that should be ioyned . 5. The maner of speche . 6. The Accen●e .

ALl these names be comprehended vnder this one worde ( doubtefull ) notwithstandyng Aristotle setteth forth diuerse waies , that he maie shewe the difference of these doubtful thynges . For some argumentes haue the doubte in a worde signifiyng diuersly , some in the propretie o● the phrase , some in the ioyning together of wordes , and some other in the deuidyng , and displacyng of the same , as it shall appere more playnlie in the handelyng of these places seuerallye . Homonumia , whiche maie be called in english , the doubtfulnes of one worde , when it signifieth diuersly , is a maner of subtiltie , when the deceipt is in a worde that hath mo significations then one . And the reason is , that suche argumentes are not good , because there are foure termes in the two propositions , for the double repete , sygnifieth one thyng in the first proposition , and an other thyng in the seconde proposition . Therefore nothyng is proued in the conclusion , when suche doubtfull wordes are placed in a proposition . And therefore when suche a subtiltie is espied , a man maie denie the cō●equente , geuing this reason that it is a subtiltie drawen from ●his place of doubtfulnesse .

¶ An example . Da Euery arme is a substance made of flesh , bloud , bones , sinues , and veines . ●i God the father hath an arme . i. Ergo God the Father is one that hath a substance of flesh bloud , bones , sinues , and veines .

I aunswere : This knittyng is not good , and therefore I deny the whole . The reason is , because it is a subtiltie of a doubtful word● , for in the first proposition , the arme is considered to be such a one , as a man hath , but in the second Proposition it is not so ment , for ●t signifieth by a Metaphore the powre , strength , or might of God .

¶ An other example . Fe● There is none euil in the Citie , saith the Prophete , which the Lord hath not done , si - There be many sinnes and horrible euilles in the Citie : o. Ergo God is the aucthor of sinne .

I denie the consequent . Because their is doubtfulnes in this worde euill : for in the first Proposition euill doth signifie , the euill of punishement , as wee call commonly all calamitie , euil , and al punishement euil , which are not sinne : & in the second Proposition , euil doth signifie offence , & all naughtines that is committed . Therefore the seconde Proposition is not agreeyng with the first , and therfore the argument is not good .

¶ The second subtiltie , called Ambiguitas .

The Ambiguitee , is , when the construction bringeth errour , hauyng diuerse vnderstandinges in it , as when the woordes be placed doubtfully , as thus . Craesus halim penetrans magnam peruertet opum vim . Cresus going ouer the floude halim , shal ouerthrow a great empire . Here is not mencioned , whether he shal ouerthrow his owne , or an other mannes . By the which Oracle in dede , he beyng deceiued , lost his owne kyngdome , when he thought to subdewe his enemies , and bring theim vnder subiection . Therfore when sentences be spoken doubtfully , that they may be construed .ij. maner of waies , they are referred to this place . Notwithstanding the vse of this place is very rare , and seldome happeneth , therfore I wil be the shorter , and only showe two versies in Latine which by cause they be very pretie● and may be .ij waies taken , I thynke it not amisse to sette them forth here .

Laus tua , non tua fraus , virtus , non copia rerum ,

Scandere te fecit , hoc decus eximium .

In English thus :

Worthinesse , not wilines , godlinesse , not goodes , brought the hereunto ,

Richesse greate , and mu●● authorite , with wordely honor to come to .

These verses beyng red backwarde either in English or in Latine , beginnyng at the last woorde , haue a clea●e contrarie vnderstandyng , as thus .

To come to honor worldelye , with authorite much , and gre●t richesse ,

Hereunto , brought the , goodes , not godlinesse , wilinesse , not worthinesse .

These two verses were written to the Pope , as worthy such a one , and s●tte vpon Pasquillus in Rome , euen for very loue , as I take it : not of thee Pope , but of Goddes holy worde .

¶ The thirde dece●pteful argument .

COniunctio distrahendorum ● a ioynyng together of those thinges which should be disseuered , and either to bee applied to the thinges that go before , or to the thynges that folowe after .

Da - Whosoeuer knoweth letters , now hath learned them , ri - A Grammarian knoweth letters i● Er●o a Grammarian now hath learned them .

Here this Aduerbe ( nowe ) if it had ben referred to the first point which is as ye se in this woorde ( letters ) & the point afterward made , when this worde ( nowe ) had bene put to it , al had bene well : but because the worde ( nowe ) is other wise placed , and referred to the next sentence , ( which is now hath learned them ) it is a false Argument , because this worde ( nowe ) should be referred to the first poinct , as thus .

Whosoeuer knoweth letters now , hath learned them ,

A Grammarian knoweth letters now

Ergo a Grammarian hath learned them .

And so this Argument is good beyng thus placed● but though this subtiltie seme childishe● yet olde babes haue vsed it , euen in the weightiest cause of our redemption , and thought therin to foile the godly , reasonyng in iest after this sort , & yet meanyng good earne●● .

Faith , without workes , doth iustify

Faith , without workes , is a deade faith :

Ergo a deade faith doth iustifie .

Here , one may se a false packing , for in the first Proposition , faith is seueral , and referred to the last woorde of the same Proposition , which is ( doth iustifie ) in the second Proposition faith is referred to the .ij. wordes ( without workes . ) so that the same faith is not ment in the seconde Proposition , that is ment in the first , and the reason is , that woordes are ioyned together , whiche should not be so ioyned , for now there are .iiij. termes , whereas by the rules of Logique , there shoulde be but thre , ( faith ) is one , ( doth iustifie ) is the seconde , ( faith without workes ) is the third , ( a dead faith ) is the fourth terme . And the reason that there be .iiij. is , that faith is first seuerally considered , which neuer wanteth workes folowing her , as frute declaryng what the tree is , not that the frute doth purchace iustification , but rather geueth a token that by faith it self , where of such workes do spryng , iustificacion is atteyned . In the second Proposition , there is mencioned a deade faith , a faith without workes , which faith the deuill himself hath , where as if the Argument ware true , there shoulde be none other faith considered in the second Proposition , then was rehersed , and mencioned in the first Proposition . I haue laboured the rather at large , to make this matter more plaine to the ignoraunt , not that it so muche neded , for the euasion is easie of it selfe , and this Argument is of no greater weight , then the other aboue rehersed were .

¶ Of partyng wordes that should be ioyned together .

DIsiunctio coniunctorum , is a diuidyng of thynges whiche should be ioyned together , & a makyng of wordes seueral , or els a disseuering of .ij. partes , which should be but one . for like as by the other place , wordes are ioyned together whiche shoulde be diuided , so now by this place , that thing is diuided , which should be all one .

The Lawe and the Gospel are two diuerse thinges .

The worde of God is the Law and the Gospel .

Ergo , the worde of God is two diuerse thynges .

In this Argument ( the woorde of God ) beyng a whole thyng of it selfe , is diuided , and where respecte shoulde be had to the two partes ioy●tely considered together , whiche are nothyng els but the whole : the partes are seuerally vnderstanded , and referred to the whole , not both together as they shoulde bee , but seuerally with their pro●erties , as they shoulde not be . For the worde of God is not the Law onely , or the Gospell onely , although it stand of these two , but is the Law and the Gospell both ioyned together : for where as a man is made of bodie and soule , the bodie is not man , nor yet the soule neither , and yet they both ioyned together , make vp a perfect man .

¶ An other example .

The articles of our faith , are .xij. in nombre ,

To beleue in God the Father , and in Iesus Christ his only sonne , are the articles of our faith .

Ergo to beleue in God the Father , and in Iesus Christ his onely sonne , are .xij. in nombre .

This Argument is to be denyed , because the doubtfulnes riseth of the diuision , for , to beleue in God the Father , & in Iesus Christ his only sonne , are the Articles of our faith , and yet they .ij. are not the whole .xij. in nomber . Therefore they two beyng of the .xij. are wronglie placed if they be diuided into .xij. Aagain there be .iiij. endes , or termes . for in the first Proposition , this part ( the articles of our faith ) comprehend the .xij. in nomber , but in the second Proposition this part ( to beleue in God and in Iesus Christe ) do not comprehend all the articles , but twoo onely , therfore it is an euil Argument .

This kynd of Argument is vsed often times of those , which by reporting an other mans labour , and his wel doyng , depraue the same , either by addyng , or diminishyng the same , as by takyng a piece of a sentence out of some Doctour , & applieng it for there purpose , or by adding more then they find , as both diuines & lawers often times full vngodly haue done , not regarding the whole course , & order of the thing , but takyng out patches and pieces to serue their vngodly purposes , whiche in dede , made nothynge for them , neither they them selues do vnderstand , what they bryng , when they doo not marke the whole course of the matter . The Romishe , reason thus .

Yf thou wilt enter to heauen , kepe the commaundementes :

Therefore kepyng the commaundementes , purchaseth heauen .

This Argument is false by leauyng the best out , for the doctrine of the gospell must first be had , our faith must be fastened , and Christ must sanctifie our doinges , before they can be good . Neither is any thyng good because we do it , but because it pleaseth god so to accept it . It is true , he that doth wel , shall haue well , but who is he ? euen the same bodie , whiche first beleueth in Christ , & apprehendeth mercie by faith , whose workes God accepteth for good , other wise he shall neuer come where God is . Therfore espie the subtilties of the vugodlie , and flye there fraude .

¶ The fifte place .

FIgura dictionis ● called otherwise in good Latine Forma orationis , the maner of the speche , is when the phrase bredeth errour , and the propertie of the tounge not well knowen , engendreth ambiguite , as in the .viij. Chapiter of Math. When Christ bad those which were healed of the leprosy : Go & shew themselfes to the Priest , our forfathers applied this saiyng to confession , thinkyng that euery one was bonde in conscience vnder payne of damnation , to confesse his sinnes to the priest euerye yere ones , whereas Christes meanyng was nothynge so , & therfore they ware moche deceyued in the maner of speakyng . This order was in the olde lawe as we maye read in Leuiticus , that lepers came not into the towne , but if any happened to be whole , and amended , he was first commaunded to shew him selfe to the priest , that the curate seing his bodie cleane , might be a witnesse to the parishe of his amendement , and so the man after that , might the rather be suffered to go abrode , and be in company with other men .

But euen as they haue fondely wrested this place to confession , euen so might light women , and euil disposed wyues , abuse their husbandes fondely , expoundyng sainct Paules wordes in the .vij. of the first , to the Corinthians , where he saith . The wife is bonde to the lawe , as longe as her husbande lyueth , but if her husbande slepe , she is at lybertie to marie wyth whome she wyll . God forbidde , women shoulde take this aduauntage of theyr husbandes slepyng , as the Romish folke haue abused all men wakyng . Slepe in this texte , signifieth nothyng but death , and yet , might women aswell abuse this texte , as other men haue abused christes saiyng , for the maintenaunce of confession . Therfore the propretie of euery speche , and the maner of speakynge ought alwaies to be obserued : we say in Englishe some time , to some one with whom we are offended , Ah sirrha ye are an honeste man indede , and yet we do not meane that he is honest indede , but thinke rather that he is a naughty fellowe . So likewyse , Christe when he should be taken of the Iewes saide to his Apostles , Dormite & requiescite , slepe one syrs , and take your rest , not that he would they should so do , but to ther rebuke and shame he spake it , because they were careles , and toke there rest . So Paule rebukyng the Corinthians , bycause thei made heathen men their iudges , and pleaded there causes vnder them , said , if there be no body emonge you to heare your owne causes , make vile persons and abiectes , to be Iudges emongst you . Not that he wold it shoulde so be , but to their shame , he spake it , as he saith hymselfe . Also vnto this place maye be referred the kynd of phrase propre to euery tonge . As where it is in the gospell . Non exibit , donec vltimum quadrantem soluerit , he shal not go out , vntil he hath payd the las●e farthyng , this sentence doth not signifie a condition , but it signifieth that he he shall neuer come out at al. Therfore those that be ignoraunt in the tonges are easely deceyued : Likewyse in Mathewe we reade . Qui dixerit verbum aduersus spiritum sanctum non remittetur ei , neque in hoc seculo neque in ●uturo . He that shal speake a worde against the holy ghost shall not be forgeuen nether in this world , nor yet in the worlde to come , that is to say , he shall neuer be forgeuen . Although the papistes referre this place to purgatory , most vainely and vnlearnedly . The accent causeth ambiguite , by reason of the affinitie in wordes , as when one hath lost al the money in his purse , and for lacke of coyne is fayne to holde the candel : for an other man when he seeth the same bodie doe his duetie with his cappe of , to his better , to say merely by the waye of a sute to the worthiest person : I praye you syr let this good fellowe be couered , he is bare , where as bare signifieth a bare purse : aswell as a bare heade , and is properlye so sayde . Againe and moste aptely this subtiltie taketh place , when sentences be euill pointed , and the sense therby depraued , as some that mainteine iustification by workes , haue straungely abused a texte of sainct Augustine , making the point plaine , whereas it shuld be an interrogatiue , and hath bene of late yeres so founde in an olde writen hand . The sentence is this . Qui fecit te sine te , non potest seruare te , sine te ? he that made the without the , can not he saue the , without the ? whereas , makyng it a playne point in latine , it hath a cleane contrarie vnderstandyng , and maketh muche for the maintenance of false religion . for it is asmuche , as who should saye : he that made the , without the , cannot saue the , without the. Moreouer , wordes spoken by imitation , that is to saye , whan one reherseth that whiche an other man saith , muste diligently be obserued . Paule writyng to the Collossiens sheweth the noughtines of some men that will kepe simple folke in subiection with there traditions , and trouble the consciences of the weake , saiyng , do not touche , do not tast , do not handle meate , which Paule reciteth , in rebuke to the hypocrites & obstinate Pharises , and yet some notwithstandyng fondly haue misconstrued th● same , persuadyng them selfes that Paule gaue suche commaundement . Therfore those thynges whiche ar● spoken by imitation folowynge an other mans speache , muste otherwise be vnderstanded , than these wordes whiche a man speaketh of him self , and geueth instruction certainly thereby . Thus farre haue I handled these subtile argumentes , which are in the wordes , nowe wyll I reherse all such false conclusions as are in the matter . And first this is to be noted , that the faultes of euery argument are either in the wrong definyng , and not wel se●tyng forth the nature of any thyng , or els in not aptely diuidyng , or lastely not aduisedly weighyng the causes of thynges , but heapynge them vp with oute order or reason . The other subtilities aboue rehersed maye either be aduoyded by well markynge the true definition , or els hauyng respecte to the diuision , by declaryng seuerally howe large euerye worde maye be taken , and what errour may rise by the false vnderstandyng of some one worde : The subtilities folowyng contein suche absurdities , whiche rise not vpon the nature of some one woorde , but take their grounde of the matter and thyng it self .

¶ There be .vii. in nombre . ● . From the accident . ● . From that , whiche is partely and after a sort so , to be full and wholy so . 3. The mistakyng of sentences gainsaiyng . 4. The consequent . 5. The cause that is not , put for the cause . 6. The cuckoes song● or by thinges doubtfull● to proue thygnes that are as doubtfull . 7. Many questions asked for one thyng .

¶ The first deceipt .

FAllacia accidentis , the deceipt fulnesse of the accident , is when diuerse thynges are ioyned to gether , in one subiecte , that is to saie , when one , and thesame thyng , is referred bothe to the substance , and also to the accident , or els , when the accidentes ( which are not of the very substaunce of man , but maie be awaie , the man liuyng still , ) are not well ioyned together , or els , when we make our argument ab euentis , that is to saie , by that thyng , whiche happeneth to a man casually , and pronounce thesame , to be the very proper cause , why , and wherfore , this or that is so . Of the first , this maie be an example .

That same whiche fleshe is , bread is not .

Fleshe is foode ,

Therefore bread is none .

In the firste proposicion , I vnderstand the substance of fleshe , and in the seconde proposicion , I meane the accident or propertie , whiche is in theim bothe , and therfore myne argument is not lawfull . because I referred , bothe the substance and the accident , to one , and to thesame subiecte . For although fleshe and breade , be not all one in substance , because fleshe is one thyng , and bread is another , and either of them hath their proper beyng , & distinct substance : yet thei agree bothe in their accident , that is to saie , in foode , to serue for the sustenaunce of man .

No synne must be committed ,

Wicked men , euen when thei execute Iustice , do synne .

Therefore , wicked men muste doo no Iustice , beyng set in aucthoritie .

The first proposicion is true , and the seconde also , for what soeuer is not of faithe , thesame is sinne . Neither can any thyng be wel , how soeuer it semeth in our iyes , except our faith be first fastened vpon the free mercie of Christ . Therfore the Iewes , how soeuer ●he● liue , kepyng order , obseruyng lawes , forbearyng riot , yet all their doynges , are nothing but sinne , whatsoeuer thei do , seme it neuer so honest , or Godly , to the sight of man . And yet this argument is not truely lapte vp . For in the firste proposicion , ( synne ) is not considered by hymself , and therefore it is truly said , that no synne muste be committed . In the second ●roposicion , where execucion of Iustice , is reported to be synne , it is not so of it self , but because the person is euill hymself , whiche executeth the Lawe , and therefore the offence commeth casually , and as the Logicians saie , per accidens , where as synne before was considered , accordyng to the substaunce . And therefore , though the officer beeyng naught , offendeth when he ministreth Iustice , ( because faithe maketh al workes good ) yet must he do iustice , because it is so commaunded , euen as he must assuredly beleue , that Iesus is the Messias , and the promised sauior sent of God . And though the doyng be euill to hym , yet it is good to other .

Again , thus reason some .

By faithe we are iustified .

Faithe is a worke .

Ergo by workes we are iustified .

This proposicion is false , consideryng that faithe , in the first proposicion , is thesame , through whiche we are iustified , not by the worthines of our beleuyng , but through the free mercie of Christ , the whiche we apprehende thorowe faithe . And therefore we must in this saiyng consider , that faithe is referred by relacion to Christe , through whom onely , al mercie is atteined , and that grace commeth , not because faith is a worke , but because mercy goth before , and receiueth frely all beleuers , without worthines either of beleuyng or els of doyng any other worke . Therfore in the first proposicion , faith beyng not so taken , as it is in the seconde , we maie saie well , it spryngeth from this deceiptful place , & is therfore not lawful

¶ Another argument .

This man is a wittie felowe ,

This same man is lame ,

Ergo this same man hath a lame witte .

This is euident false , because the accidentes of the body , are referred to the substaunce of the mynd , as by this last argument , ye maie see that lamenesse , whiche is of the body , is attributed to the mind , and the reason is vain .

The thirde deceipte is , when many thinges are referred to one subiect , we make that to be the very next and chief cause , whiche is a casuall thyng , and commeth by hap vnto any body as thus .

Dauid is a blessed man .

Dauid is an adulterer .

Ergo adulterers are blessed men

I deny the consequence , because it is a deceiptfull argument , by that , which is the accident . For when many thynges chaunce to one manne , we must se what are the very causes of that thyng whiche wee attribute to the subiecte . Dauid is a blessed man . And wherfore ? Not because he was an adulterer , for that happened to hym casually , but because he was chosen of God , and had the feare of God before his iyes , and although this happened by the instinct of the deuill , yet he called for grace , repented sore , and trusted in Gods mercie , as the Psalmes plentifully be are witnesse , and this was the cause , why ●e was blessed .

Ye must obserue , that in this deceiptfull argument , although many thynges , are referred to one subiect , yet are thei not after one sorte , comprehended in thesame subiect , but diuersly considered , as when I ioyne accidentes , bothe of body , and mynd together , as thus .

This felowe is a singyng man ,

This felowe is blynd .

Ergo he is a blind singyng man .

Here ye maie se the accidentes of the mynd and body , ioyned together , whiche should not be so .

¶ The Anabaptistes reason thus .

That whiche is nothyng , deserueth no punishement .

Synne is nothyng .

Ergo synne deserueth no punishment .

In the first proposicion , that thyng is ment , whiche is not at al , but is cleane gone from nature , or els neuer was with in the nature of thynges . In the seconde proposicion , ( synne ) is to bee reported to bee nothyng , because it self beyng nothyng worthe , spoyleth a man of his other vertues , and so ouerthroweth nature , asmuche as it can . When we se a man blynde , we iudge that he hath lost his sight , herein we esteme the sight , to be a gift geuen of God , and blyndnesse to bee the taker awaie of that , whiche was geuen of God . In like case , synne is the destruccion of that , whiche was , beyng of it self nothyng . And so in this case , to dooe well , is a thyng , the want wherof , is nothyng , the whiche , is sin .

¶ Another .

Whatsoeuer encreaseth sinne is not to be taught .

The Lawe of Moses encrea●seth synne .

Ergo the Lawe is not to bee taught .

I answere , the lawe e●creaseth not synne , by the awne nature , but casually . For when man himself , is corrupted with vice , then the Lawe maketh his synne appere hainous , and en●reaseth the knowlege of sinne in him . So that i● the firste proposicion , the nature of increasyng sinne , is considered : in the second proposicion , the casuall happenyng is rehersed when thynges are euil not of theimselfes , but made euill through the wickednesse of the offendor . Al suche arg●mentes , muste be aduoyded by distinccion , that is , ye muste declare the double meanyng in the two proposicions , & then ye haue soluted the subtilitie

¶ The seconde .

FRom that , whiche is partely and after a sorte so , to be full , and wholy so , and by colour of the part , to geue iudgement of the whole .

Wine is euill for those , that bee sicke of an Agewe .

Ergo wine is al together euill .

Redde wine byndeth .

Ergo all wine bindeth .

This argument is from the particular , to the vniuersall , the which is easy to be aduoyded . Therefore errors doo often chaunce , when we comprehende the whole , speakyng onely of the part , or when we make the signe , to bee the very self thyng , and although ye haue had childishe examples before , onely to make the matter plain , ye shall se that in weightie matters , this deceiptfull argument hath been vsed .

We heare many nowe a daies crye out and saie , the lawyers are naught , they meane no truthe , but onely seke for lucre , where as no man I thynke condemneth all lawyers , although he haue iust cause to accuse somme wretched lawyers . Some saye agayne that priestes haue lefte fornication gaily wel● and are neuer suspected nowe a dayes for adulterie beyng yoked in lawfull mariage : But some spare not to saye agayne , that they haue made an exchauge , leauyng vp whoredome , and folowyng couetousnesse , the deuell and al : marie God forbidde that all priestes should so do . And in dede if anye one should so reason , I would recken hys argument to be comprehended within the compasse of this false conclusion . Thus reason the Anabaptistes .

Unrighteousnes is altogether reproued .

In euerie kyngdome is muche vnrighteousnes vsed .

Ergo euery kyngdome is altogether reproued .

By this meanes we shall haue no kyngdome , no lawe , no political order , no trade , no discipline , no iudgement for offendours . But this argument is to be reiected , because it is deryued from the part , to the whole . For although many thynges be amisse in a politicall bodie , yet the whole therfore must not be dissolued , the lawes must not be abrogated , nor yet good order abandoned : for the chiefe thynge that is in euerie empire is a thing , ordeined of God , and a righteous thyng , as for an example . Political order , lawes , statutes , Iudgement , execution , and punyshyng offendours , and therefore they reason amisse , that saye there is an abuse in a politicall ordre , therefore we shal haue no order at all in anie common weale , & agayne ye shall perceyue , that there is more in the conclusion , then was rehersed in the two former propositions . Therfore we ought diligently to note the circumstaunce of the thyng , if we will auoyde this subtiltie , and when a thyng is spoken in parte , we must not thereby iudge the whole : or measure the vniuersall , by that whiche is comprehended vnder the generall .

A man maye forsake an adulterouse wyfe .

Ergo he maie forsake his wyfe .

This is from the inferior to the vniuersall , whiche is not well gathered , as it standeth here : for although a man maie forsake his wife , beyng naught of her bodie , yet maye he not forsake an honest woman , when it liketh hym to change . for this worde ( wife ) in the first proposition , is hedged with her circumstance , that is to say , aduoutry , whiche causeth diuorcement . Neither is this argument good , the Kyng maie put to death euery euill man , Ergo the kyng maie put to death euery man . Againe if we will reason negatiuely , as we dyd before affirmatiuelie , we shall frame our argument amisse . As thus .

No wife should be put awaie .

Ergo neither a naughty wife should be put awaie .

¶ Agayne .

No wyne is euell

Ergo no myngled wyne is euell .

This is from the vniuersal , to that which is inferior , and as ye would saie hedged with his circumstance , & compassed with that , whiche before , was neither in wife , nor yet in wine . For a wife so long as she kepeth her self to her husband only , she is no aduoutresse . Wine that drinketh of itself , is not myngled , and therfore the argument is not good because that thyng is in the lesse , or inferior , whiche was not in the generall .

There is a figure in Rethorick , called Hiperbole , that is to saye , when a thyng is spoken beyond measure vncrediblie , and yet is not so largely ment . As when I wyll prayse a man for hys strength , I wil say , he passeth Hercules in manhode , meanyng that he excelleth in manhode and valeauntnes . If we knowe one that ronneth well , eyther dogge , man , or horse , we vse to saye , he is as swifte as a swallowe , he flieth like an arrowe out of a bowe , meanyng onely that he is excedyng swifte . Therfore we must diligently take hede , when such speches are vsed , that we take not them as they be spoken , but as they are ment , neyther take the whole for the part , when the whole is expressed in wordes , and the part ment in vnderstandyng . Ieremie saieth .

Scio domine quod non est hominis via eius .

I knowe Lorde that man hath not his waie .

Therefore man hath no fre will at al , no aduise , no choise , to deliberate either this waie , or that waie .

This consequent is not good , for Ieremias saiyng , muste be vnderstande exclusiuely . The waie of man , that is to saye , the callyng of man , is not only ruled or led by the powre , strength , or force of man , neither can he do any thing of himselfe alone , without the helpe or grace of god . Sennacherib that wicked kyng , thought by his own powre and wisdom , to wynne his spurres against Ierusalem , but he trusted so muche to himselfe , & hys owne wisdome , that he lost his bootes & al , at length . The chief and principal cause of all godly actions , procede from God , but so not withstandyng do they procede , that man hath choise , wil , and libertie , to do what him liketh , beyng assisted with the grace of God . As Christ prayseth the labourer and saith . To him that hath , shal be geuen . And Chrisostome saieth verie well . God draweth vnto hym , but he draweth the willing . For god wil haue our good wil , to be ioyned with his callyng . Therfore Plato in his .iiij. booke where he framed his common weale , doth well mitigate this Hiperbola , in this sentence whiche semeth credible ( God doth al thynges , & orders euery action ) saiyng , I do wel allowe this sentence , that God ruleth al thynges , but so not withstandyng I allowe it , if it be well vnderstand . For it ware best to grounde it so , that mans will , labour , and diligence , must be ioyned thereunto , as we se in sailyng vpon the sea , Shipmen cal to God for helpe , and God will helpe them , but so not withstandyng , if they helpe them selfes . Accordyng wherunto there is in the fables of Esope a tale of one , whose cart stode fast in the myre , whiche man seyng his cart laied faste , cried to Hercules for helpe , and praied that he might come from heauen : answer was made , that he should first helpe himself , & then cal vpon Hercules , or els his cart were like to stick fast stil.

¶ An other argument .

The churche doth not erre .

The Phariseis are the churche .

Ergo the Phariseis do not erre .

The disceipt is , from the particular to the vniuersall . As who should saie , some do not erre in the churche , Ergo no bodie doth erre at all , that be of the churche : which is false , for the churche is as wel of the euel as of the good . The good men that are trayned in the truth of God , and taught the true loue of God , by ofte readyng and folowyng his worde , haue the true lyght & erre not : Other that be slouhtfull , careles , drouned in ambition , and all wordlie luste , both can erre , and do erre , from tyme to tyme . Therefore where as I saie , the church doth not erre , it is called Synecdoche , that is to saye , when the part is vsed for the whole .

An other argument made by the Anabaptistes .

To the iust , ther is no law sett .

The riotouse soune after his conuersion , is iust .

Ergo vnto him there is no law sette .

This argument is from the part to the whole : he is deliuered from the lawe , for somuch as perteineth to his condemnation , but he is not fre for so muche as belongeth to the due obedience , which he oweth vnto God : for this order standeth for euer most stedfastly , that euery creature be obedient to God the creatour . Again for asmuch as in euery iust man that is conuerted from his euill waies there remaineth a wycked inclination , the same must alwayes be bride led and kepte in , euen with the terrour of the lawe , as thoughe it ware with a mouserolle .

¶ The signe is often tymes turned into the thyng it selfe , as I rehersed before .

This is the picture of sainct George

Ergo it is saint George himself .

This argument men haue vsed , when they haue seen a man painted in a wal , or grauen in a stone , as thus . This is sainct Christopher , this is sainct Loy . This is the picture of Christ , Ergo it is Christe . This is an Image of oure Ladye , Ergo it is oure Ladye , and here she wyll worke wounders . more than in an other place , as she dyd at walsingham , at Boston , at Lincoln , at Ipswiche , and I cannot tell where , when priestes gatherd monye , & poore folkes ware mocked . here , ye must denie the consequent , bycause the signe is not the thing signified , neither is god bound to any place , to the whiche he hath not bound hym selfe by his worde , nor yet and saint neither . This rule ouerthroweth all maner of Idols whiche haue ben in all ages from tyme to tyme . In this kynd of subti●tie , ye must diligently obserue .iiij. circumstancies , the parson , the tyme , the place , and the maner of comparynge thynges together , all which are false & deceipteful reasons .

The p●rson .

A noble man of the parliament house maye hunte in the kynges parkes by authoritie .

Ergo euery man ma●e .

The tyme .

It is not lawful to walke in the stretes of London after the watche is set .

Ergo it is not lawfull to walke in London at all .

The place .

It is not lawful to gyue a blow within the courte gates ,

Ergo it is not lawfull at all in myne owne defence .

The maner of comparyng .

It is an Image of a man ,

Ergo it is a man .

Compare these .ij. together , & marke the accident adioyned to a man , and ye shall perceiue that it taketh awaye all substaunce , and leaueth only the shadow : for this worde painted , restrayneth the other & compasseth hym with in his boundes , so that a painted man can no more be called a man , then an adulterous wife can be called a wife : for so longe is a woman called a wife , as she kepeth her selfe within the boundes of matrimonie , other wise she is no wyfe , although men vse to cal them wyues .

The .iii. deceipt .

SEcundum non causam , vt causam , that is , when a cause that ●s not able to proue the mat●er , is brought in as though● it ware of force and strengthe , but the ground beynge considered , the fault is easely espied .

Dronkenes is euil ,

Ergo wine is naught .

Wyne is not to be reproued altogether , although some abuse the same , for it is a good thinge ordeyned of God for the sustenaunce of man .

An other argument .

Some young men , when thei come tother landes , fal to vnthriftines .

Ergo riches are not good .

In all suche argumentes , wherei● good thynges are reproued , bycause euil bodies abuse thesame , the euil wyl● and the naughty inclination of the man whiche abuseth suche thynges is to be rebuked : and therfore when it is otherwise , it may be said , that a cause which is not , is put for a cause . As some abuse Paules meanyng , when they go about to depraue philosophie .

Paule warneth that we should not be deceaued by philosophie .

Ergo Philosophie is naught , say some .

The argument doth not folowe , for a good thyng may be much abused , and yet the thynge it selfe may not be altogether reiected as naught : therfore Paule doth not condemne demonstrations and principles whiche are assured truthes , taught by the sciences , as in arithmeticke .iiij. and .iiij. make .viij. In philosophie . The whole is greater then the parte , do as thou woldest be done vnto , but he reproueth the abuse of sciences , when there is made a mingle mangle of them , and one confounded with an other , as some haue sayde that philosophie wil teache a christian , asmuche for his profession , as all the Prophetes and the whole Bible besides wyll doe : this made Paule byd men take hede , that they be not deceaued by philosophie .

Now a dayes they wyll saye . I cannot tell , here is is muche preachynge , muche teachyng of godes worde , but I see fewe folowers of it , it was a better worlde when we had not halfe so many preachers , heresies were neuer more ripe , naughtinesse neuer more abounded , therfore gyue vs the olde learnyng again , and take you the new .

This reason is not worthy a strawe , The wickednes of the Preachers cometh not of their learning , but of their vicious natures , and naughty desiers : for out of one and the same floure the Bee sucketh hony , and the spider draweth poison . By these and such other like examples , ye maie easely espie , wherefore the Argument is not good , yf ye marke whether the true cause be in the former Proposition , or some counterfect reason , whiche semeth to proue , and yet in diede doth not proue the matter at al. for if I reason thus .

Iohson and Robson looked through an hedge , & the one saw the other :

Ergo they two are both nigh of kindred :

What man seeth not , that doth see any iote at al , that this geare hangeth together like a broken potte sheerd , and that the Antecedent doth nothyng at all , proue the Consequent : and yet the other Argumentes aboue rehersed ( if they bee narowlie marked , ) are as folishe , & as worthie to be laughed at , as is this folishe fonde reason , and madly inuented argument .

¶ An oth●r Argument .

Feare not the signes of the Element :

Ergo they signifie none euil to come .

The Consequent is false , for Christ doth forbid his Disciples , to feare the signes , not by cause they signifie none euil to come , but by cause that where as they signifie harme , & punishemen● to the worlde , & wicked persons : yet he wil be a present succour to his church , and neuer leaue it comfortles . As when the godly heare this ( feare not death ) it doth not folow , but that death is an horrible thyng , and much repugnaunt to mans nature . This deceiptful Argument is muche vsed in this our life , and made a bucklar for diuerse matters . As when I am lothe to bee of a quest , or that any such busines shoulde trouble me , beyng sent for , I faine my self sicke , because I would not gladlie come . Or when one that is riche should healpe a poore man , to saie : God healpe you syr . I haue a great charge my self , I can not do for you . Or when a Bisshoppe shoulde be desired to teache or preache , to saie : he is sick . Or when a lawyer being desired to healpe a poore man , and profered there vpon , a litle mony , euen so muche as the poore man can not well spare , and yet not halfe so muche as the lawyer woulde haue : streyght to saie , I am sory , I can not do for you , if I were not called vpon otherwise by diuerse men , I woulde not fa●l to do you good . This is as thei saie in English , better a badde excuse , then none at all , in Latine it is called , non causa pro causa posita . And the vsing of such excuses emong the Rethoritians , is called , translatio , that is to saie , a shiftyng , or puttyng of the faulte from one , to an other . As wee reade that Demades vsed a wonderfull good shifte , when it was laidesore to his charge that he had writtten a very naughtie decre and vnhonest , for the obteynyng of the peace at Alexanders hand : He aunswered that the same Decree was not writtten with his owne writyng pen , but with Alexanders warryng speare , which is asmuche to saie , feare did driue him to take suche , and such conditions of peace . We reade a notable Historie of a younge childe in Rome , called Papirius , whiche because both it is pleasaunt , & much to be woundred at , and also serueth for this purpose right aptly , I thinke it meete to be rehersed in this place . This Papirius beyng a young ladde of .x. or .xij. yeres olde , and sonne to one of the Senatours in Rome , whiche were then , as noble men be nowe in Englande , lords of the Counsail , went euery day with his father to the Parliamente house , and hard from time to time all matters that were debated there . His father euermore charged hym that he should not vtter any thyng , which he hard , to any bodie liuing . It happened afterward that vpon vrgent causes & weightie affaires , the Counsail did sit muche longer then they were wount , and continued so , for the space of a seuē-night . Euery bodie meruailed what this matter shoulde be . This boy Papirius knew all . His mother beyng most of all desirous to knowe what it should be , when she could not attaine the knowlege thereof by her housband , she called the boie to confession , & hauyng the instrument of absolution by her , that is , a very good birchē rodde , charged her sonne truely to tell her euery whitte that was debated in the Parliament house , or els he shoulde smart for it surely : for , what with the secretenesse of the thyng , and what with the silence of her sonne , she was wonderfull with childe , till she had gotte some what of the boie . The boie himselfe , first remembryng his fathers commaundement , and consideryng how he shoulde be paide at his hande , if he tolde al thynges in diede as they were : and again of the other side , seyng presente paine before hym , the rodde at hande , his mother with childe till she were somewhat satisfied , thought it better , pretely & by the waie to mocke his mother , and so to stop her mouth with some forged tale : then falsely to bewraie his father , his frendes , and al his country . and therfore thus he began craftely to shape his tale : Mother if you wil promise me to kepe that close , which I shal disclose vnto you , and tell it no body liuynge , you shall heare the whole matter , euen as it is . She aunswered , she would not tell it againe whatsoeuer it were . Then said he , Mother the matter wholly concerneth mariage , and the Counsaill haue long debated , whether it were better for one man to haue two wiues , or one wife to haue two housbandes , and as yet the matter hangeth in suspence . When she harde this , her hart burned & her stomake was ouercharged wonderfully , that except she had laied it in one of her neighbours lappes , it was like she woulde haue brast . Out she goeth , & maketh asmuch spede with her toung , as she doth with her fete , & telleth it immediatly to her nexte neighbour , and from one , to an other , till at length a nomber knew it , where vpon they agreed wholly to go all together to the Counsaill house , to entreat the Senatours to sit no longer vpon this matter , but clearely to determine with one assente and consente , that it were best , & most expedient for euery woman to haue .ij. housbandes , and not otherwise for no worldes good , any thyng heretofore to the contrarie notwithstandyng . By this example ye maie see the subtiltie of this deceipte . For when the mother asked her sonne , what the cause was of their longe sitting , he told● her a cleane contrarie thyng , which the Counsaill neuer thought nor yet once minded , this is , non causa pro causa posita . A cause that is not , put for a cause

¶ The .iiii. deceipt .

FAllacia consequentis , when the consequent , that is to saie the latter proposicion , is euill gathered by the antecedent , whiche goeth before . And the waie to knowe the fault of this deceiptfull argument , is to examyne the argument , with the preceptes of Logique , aboue rehersed .

Euill deedes purchas● death .

Ergo good deedes purchase life .

The argument is not good , first consideryng , we cannot fulfill the law , by our selfes . Again , workes are wicked , that are doen without faithe , so that first we must be in the state of grace by faithe , and assured through faithe , to liue euer , before our workes shal be accepted for good , neither can our doynges bee perfecte , in any parte , to fulfill Goddes will , and his commaundementes , and therefore , though euill deedes deserue death , yet good deedes can neuer purchase life , so long as we be not able , to fulfill the Lawe , as God knoweth , we shall neuer be : scripture , our consciences , the worlde , and all , bearyng witnesse against vs . Of signes that bee not proper , neither tary long , no strong argument is made , as thus .

He is pale in countenaunce .

Ergo he is in loue .

Palenes maie come of study , of care and thought , of abstinence , of watchyng of some distemperature in the body , and many other waies besides .

Again , there is an other rule . A posse ad esse , non est bona consequentia . Because a thyng maie bee , it shall not therefore folowe that it is . As the Catholikes haue serued vs , for the Sacrament , saiyng , that because God is omnipotent , and maie bee in the Sacrament , by his power really : Ergo he is there really . For so maie I saie . God may fede euery christian , both in body & soule , with the might of his worde . Ergo he doth so . The prophet saith , I neuer sawe a iust man forsaken of god , nor his sede begging his bread . And yet god doth not fede al christians with his word only , but vseth his appoyncted wil generally . Likewise in the Sacrament , God fedeth vs spiritually , because the fleshe eaten , profiteth nothyng , and thei that eate the Sacrament in faith , tary in God● and God in them spiritually● & haue life euerlastyng , whereas other that eate it without faithe , haue it not at all , for lacke of faithe , consideryng God is in no wicked man . But in th old world , many wonders were wrought , and because thinges might be● al thynges should be , as thei would haue it , & yet I cannot bee perswaded to thynke that because al priestes maie be honest , therfore thei all be honest .

From the general , to the inferior , affirmatiuely , is no good argument made .

He is a man .

Ergo he is a good man .

He maie notwithstandyng , bee an euil man , yea , & soner euill , then good , for none can tell almoste now a daies , where the good men d●ell . Or if thei haue dwellyng places still , yet few can finde them at home . Again , to make an argument , from those thynges , whiche happen to a man , and maie bee awaye : the reason cannot of necessitie folowe .

This old manne goeth gaily , and like a young man .

Ergo he is in loue with some woman .

In this reason , a likelihode is made necessary , as though it could not other wise bee , but that he was in loue , because he went in freshe apparell , yong man like . But for this whole capcious cause , I thynke it best , that ye marke the rules , aboue rehersed , and ye shall not faile to espie the faulte , for the dec●ipte is sone seen , if ye call the argument to accompt .

¶ The .v. deceipt .

PLures interrogationes , many questions , that is , when I goo aboute to deceiue one , askyng hym this & that , & he thinkyng not to what end I aske hym , at length is brought to an inconuenience , by his former grauntyng , of thynges particularly . And it is two waies considered : First when we aske of many thynges , one : and again , when wee aske of one thing , many thinges , & put forth diuerse questions , before we come to the pur●ose . For the first , this maie be an example .

Is water and wine whot or no ?

The question is asked , so that he must answere to them bothe , whiche he can not do at one tyme , and geue one resolute answere directly , accordyng to the demaunders will . But this is a trifle , and one that hath but a spōfull of wit , maie answere to this question , v●yng a distinccion , and seuerall shewyng the qualities , of bothe wine and water , otherwise he cannot be able , to make any reasonable answere , as the question is propounded .

Is worshippyng of sainctes , and praiyng to god himself , allowed emong Christians , or no ?

Here ye se , that for .ij. diuerse thynges , one certain question is directly required , whereas no man can iustly answere at a worde : and therfore the question beyng vain made ioyntly , must seuerally be soluted .

I will merily adde another , whiche agreeth to the second maner of askyng , & I wil adde thesame , rather to geue matter of laughyng , then that there is any great waight in it . A lawyer toke paines in a matter of law , for a certain gentleman , that was some tyme a scholer . The gentleman promised hym a horse for his labour , the lawyer after paines taken , requireth his horse , the gentleman denieth his debt , although the lawyer had witnesse . And thus the gentleman reasoned merily for hym self : sir qd he , all horses be not of one colour , but of diuerse coloures , some blacke , some white , some baye , some daple : if I owe you any by promise , I owe you no more of one colour , then I do of another , consideryng , I did promise you no more of one colour , then I did of another , and I maie be discharged of my promise , as well in deliueryng one certain colored horse , as another . Therefore , either I owe you horses of all colours , or els I owe you none at all : but I do not owe you horses of all colours , ( consideryng I promised you but one ) therefore I owe you none . Yea , serue you me so , qd the Lawyer , mary this schoole poynct , much passeth al our lawe poinctes . Wel sir as it pleaseth you , qd he , if you be at that poynct . When the gentleman sawe hym so reasonable , and heard hym saie so , he gaue him accordyng vnto his promise , consideryng , he referred the whole matter so gently , to his pleasure .

For this seconde maner of askyng , when of one thing , many are asked , one maie easely be inuegled and brought to an inconvenience , before he be ware , & of this kinde of askyng , there is also a notable example in Tullie , where he speaketh in his boke De inuentione , of this figure inductio , whiche is by thynges not doubtful , to proue that thyng true which is doubtfull . Socrates sheweth that Aspasia had this talke with zenophon , and his wife , in maner and forme folowyng , after other communication had before . And tell me in faith , ( quod Aspasia ) if thy neighbour had more precious Iewels then thou nowe haste , whether wouldest thou wisshe to haue hers , or thine owne ? She aunswered . I woulde haue hers , what if she had more costelie garmentes , more fine apparell , wouldest thou not haue it also , ye mary would I , ( quod she . ) Ah well I say , what if thy neighbour had a better husband then thou nowe hast , whether haddest thou rather kepe thyne owne still , or hers ? With that she bloushed . Then Aspasia when apportunitie serued , spake to zenophon likewise , and said merelie vnto him , he not knowing of this that was spoken before . I praye the tell me zenophon , What if thy neighbour had a better horse then thyne is , haddest thou rather haue thine own or thy neighbors ? I would haue his saieth he . what if he had better lande then thou hast , wouldest thou haue ●is , or thyne owne ? I would haue his saieth he . What if he had a better wife then thou hast , wouldest thou chaunge or no ? Here zenophon sayd neuer a worde . Then spake Aspasia . For asmuche as both of you onely hath not aunswered me , in that poinct , which I moste desired to knowe : I my selfe will showe what both you thinke . For you beyng a woman , first you desire a very honest man to your husband : and zenophon beyng a man , desireth to haue a ryght honest woman . Therfore except you both shall so behaue youre selfes , that there maye be founde , neyther man , nor woman , more honest vnd earth , then you two be : vndoubtelie you both will euermore moste earnestlye desyre that , whiche you thinke pri●cipale and best of al , both that thou beyng a husband , might haue a ryght honest wyfe , and you also beyng a womā● myght be maried to a ryght honest husbande .

¶ The syxt deceit● .

PEtitio princip● , the cuckowes song , that is , a repeting of that wholly in the conclusion , whiche before was onely spoken in the first proposition : or els by thynges doubtful , to proue thynges that are as doubtfull .

Euery slaunderer must be banyshed the court .

Suche a man is a slaunderer .

Ergo euerie slaunderer must be banished the court .

The conclusion is not well gathered , for it should not be vniuersall , but particular , & therefore seyng the same is repeted that was spoken before , with out any good probation : in my mynde it maie be called the cuckowes songe . Agayne , when an vnknowen thyng is proued by a thyng , that is as much vnknowen , as the other is .

In purgatorie , sinnes be forgeuen to the dead .

Ergo we must saye masse styll for the dead .

This wyse reason , fond preachers heretofore haue made , that therefore we must haue masse for the dead , because in purgatorie sinnes be forgeuen the dead . And yet doubte I asmuch of this place purgatorie , as I mistruste this folish massyng , & to saie truth it is sinne to like either of them both , & as for purgatorie , I thynke there was neuer none suche , but onely inuented to feare the simple , as children haue bene made afraied with a visar , or els founde out to pike mens purses . An other .

Thus many hundred yeres haue men vsed to ●raie to sainctes departed .

Ergo they do not amisse , that praie to the dead still .

I aunswere , whoredom hath bene vsed these many hundreth yeares , Ergo it is lawful both to haue the stewes and to go to the stewes still .

Euery man may see howe foolyshe this argument is , and yet it is as good as the other , euery ynche of it . For although men haue praied , men haue gone on pilgremage thus long , and thus long : yet it is not therfore true , that the people did well therein . For we Englyshe men knowe ( not only by heare say , but also by good experience ) that custome is the mother , and the sucke geuer vnto all error . And therefore , when suche argumentes are made , we saie . Dubium per id quod aeque dubium est , confirmatur . That which is doubtful , is proued by that whiche is as doubtful , and so we do not allowe the argument .

Thirdly , when that thynge is taken to proue , as thoughe it ware vndoubted , and euery bodie agreed therunto : where as yet it is in controuersie .

The anabaptistes haue the holy ghost the teacher of al thinges .

Ergo thei nede not to here the gospel , nor yet be bound to folow it .

Who knoweth not , that hath any knowlege of the truth , that the firste may lawfully be doubted , and rather denied , then graunted .

Fourthly , this deceipte is then vsed when that whiche foloweth , proueth that which goeth before , as though the cart went before the horse , for often times that thynge whiche is proued , is more assured then that whiche dothe proue , as thus .

Infantes haue faith .

Ergo they must be baptised .

The consequent is vndoubtedly true , for as muche as we fi●de it so in the scripture that in the primatiue churche whole families wer baptised , children and all : for we reade not that they were excepted : and yet some doubte , & that of the greatest clarkes , whether children haue faith or no.

The .vii. deceipt .

IGnoratio elenchi , ( that is the mistakyng of contradictorie propositions ) is a disceiptful argument which comprehendeth in it selfe al other aboue rehersed subtilties Aristotel notwithstandynge hath compassed this deceipt with in his boundes . First when respect is not made to one and the same thynge , but diuersely applied .

To eate fleshe is good for helth sake .

To eate fleshe is not good when offence maye folowe .

Ergo to eate fleshe is good and not good .

Truth it is & yet shal it not folowe , that whosoeuer eateth , the same man doth offende : considering to eate is lawfull , and is none offence to God at all , beyng ones allowed by the magistrate , in whose hande lyeth the whole orderyng of this matter .

Againe , this deceipt is vsed when contradiction is made according to diuerse respectes , as thus .

The law is to be folowed in morall preceptes , and not in ceremonials , nor yet alwayes in iudicials neyther .

Ergo the lawe is to be folowed and not to be folowed .

It is euen so , and yet not true neyther , that the law is alwayes to be reiected , and to be folowed , as it pleaseth our phantasies .

Thirdly , this subtiltie is fashioned , when a contradiction is vsed , and yet not vsed of lyke sorte , so that the latter parte doth not denye the former in one maner of vnderstandyng , as thus .

I knowe the worde of God , and I doe not knowe it .

Those that liue licentiously , & feare not the general resurrection , may iustly be here included , and the .ij. sentences whiche seeme to gayne saye , maye both be true in them : for some knowe that the scriptures are of God , or at least , thei know that the scriptures are commonly taken for the worde of god , and yet they themselues , knowe not one worde of gods will , nor yet passe a whitte for it . Or we may say that those poore soules in the Popes reigne knew the word of god o●ly by here say , when thei hard the ghosphell redde in latine , & coulde not tel one word what it ment .

Fourthly , the time , maye alter thinges , and make .ij. diuerse thinges to be both true , thus .

To worke vpon the Saboth is forbid , and yet , not to worke vpon other dayes , is also forbid .

Ergo to worke , & not to worke , are both forbed .

It is an easye matter to auoyde all suche deceiptes . Therfore there is a rule in logique that .ij. contradictions can neuer be both , either false or true , at one and the same time , and that in one respect , as thus .

Al true beleuers shall attayne saluation .

Some true beleuers shall not attayne saluation .

These .ij. propositions can neuer be bothe together either true or false . Nowe the other whiche were made before , maye be both true , at one and the same time , & therfore they are not contradictories , bycause they are not considered in respec●e of one , and the same thing , at one and the same time , but diuersly applied and considered , as thus .

To preache in the congregation is meete for a man , and not for a woman .

Ergo to preache is meete and not meete .

Al this is true being diuersly consi●ered , first , a woman may not preache , & yet a man may , & so the sentence is true , and it maye well be sayde to preache is meete and not meete , with out anye contradiction at all , bycause of the diuerse respectes , whiche be had bothe to the man , and to the woman . if the rule of contradictorie propositions before rehersed , be well marked , all these deceiptes may easely be auoyded .

Of particular auoydyng false argume●●es whiche are deryued from the places .

WHen I see an argumrnt deriued from these subtile places , or els from the places of inuention , which I haue before at large declared : I ought to obserue diligently the general rules & preceptes there gyuen , for if one reason thus from the generall worde , suche a man foloweth noughtines , Ergo he is a thefe , the argument is not good , and the error appereth the rather , by this general rule , From the gene●al to the kynde , the argument is not good . for though one be noughte otherwise , yet maye he lyue noughtly longe , and be no thefe at all , as he may be an aduouterer , a swearer , or suche like .

False ●casons made through the euil framyng of an argument .

THe wrong framyng , may with ease be espied , if the rules be ones learned , that are before set forth for the same purpose . And again all other kynd of argumentes , haue rules especiall , and propre to themselfes whereby the true orderyng of an argument is better knowen .

Of obiections made to an argument .

OBiections are then vsed , when we doe not dissolue the argument by the rules of logique , or directly auoyd the danger , but bryng an other thyng , as an example , to ouerthrowe that whiche was spoken before , and this maner is foure wayes vsed .

By takyng occasion of the self same . thing , that is put forth , and wrestyng it otherwyse . By v●yng the like example in an other matter , By makyng cleane contrary example . By standyng to aucthoritie , or vsyng sentences of the sage .

For the first , this example may serue , richesse are good , bycause they brynge pleasure . naye marie , richesse are euil , bycause they bryng wo.

Of the second , thus . Suche a one is an honest man for I saw him ones gyue almose to the poore , I answere , such a one is no dronckarde , for I sawe him ones sober .

Of the third , thus . Suche an honest man hathe ones receaued a great displeasure of his frinde and neighboure , Ergo he maye hate hym deadly for euer . Naye not so , for the wycked man will sometimes forgyue , receauyng displeasure , and therefore the goodman must muche more forgyue .

Of the fourth , thus . Forgyue hym , bycause he is a child , nay not so , for Salomon byddeth , that the rodde shoulde not go from the childe , therfore it is good to beate hym , when he offendeth .

I haue trauayled thus farre , to disclose vntruthes , and to open cloked errors , wherein though sometimes the examples be but slender , yet in greate matters the same dec●ipte hath taken place . Therfore though to the English eare , they maye seme straunge , yet I hope they wil be better taken , when this is knowen and fullie seen , that thei gyue light to greater matters , and that logique bi good order , & perfite reason● doth rule all and espieth faultes whiche otherwise would brede offence : for loke what false argument is vsed , the s●me maye with ease be founde in some one of these deceipteful corners , or elswhere in the places of inuention , and therfore maye by arte easelye be auoyded . especiallye , if the other rules aboue rehersed , be ones well dige●●ed . for the rules are touche stones to trye vntruthes , and to frame matters right . And generally good hede ought to be had , that the matter , & forme of euerye argument be true accordyng to the rules● for by these .ij. pointes , al errors are espied . The faulte is in the mat●er ( called in latine Materia , ) when wordes are doubtefull , and may diuersly be taken , & also when the pithe , or substance of the matter is confounded , & straungelye vsed by woordes ioyned together , & thinges not orderly placed : in al which kynd of argumentes , ye must vse either a flatte deniall of the proposition , or els vse a distinction to shewe howe the argument may be true , and how it may be false , accordynge as it is vnderstanded . We vse a denial when of .ij. propositions in the Argument , wee denie either the proposition at large , or the seuerall by showyng the fault to be in the definition , in the diuision , in the causes , or some other place , as thus .

Suche a one is a very honest man ,

For I had good cheare at his house .

Here the fault is in the definicion , for if I would go about to d●fine an honest man , euery bodie would la●gh me to scorne , if I would thus define him . That man what soeuer he be that maketh me good cheare at his house , is a very honest man : but I muste rather say thus . What so euer he is that doth as he woulde be done vnto , and wrongeth no body , but liueth stil vprightly● godly , and continently , that same is an honest man , or els not . For vertu is gotten by longe practise , and by well doyng of many good thynges , not by makyng a good dinner , and therefore the other aboue rehersed definition , by cause it is not lauful nor agreing with the rules of a definition , it is vtterly to be denied , this reason applied there vnto that the definition is not lawful . Albeit I knewe one in my life , & that no smal birde , which was better learned then wise , and yet not so wel learned in deede , as he thought himself in his owne opinion , wise , and vsed the like reason . For where as it chaunced by occasion of talke , that one in his compaigny inueighed agaynst the same mans frend , speaking thinges nothing tothsome , & otherwise then he would gladly heare , although not greatly missing the quishyne in reportyng truthe , he toke the matter very hotte , and like a frende spake earnestly in his frendes cause , testifyeng for his honestie with most constant wordes , and to persuad● hym the better he vsed this sore reason . Thou art to blame , quoth he to depraue such a mannes estimacion , for by gods mother he is a very honest man , for he is my special frend , I would thou shouldest know it , & therrfore cease thy railing : with that , other came to part them . for they fell to reasonyng with Argumentes , that were neither in figure , nor in mode , but stode in plaine buffeftes , whiche is a subtiltie , that is not mencioned with in the compasse of this boke , and therefore daungerous , neither can it be auoided , except one haue a headpece , or some weapon in his hande to beare of , suche deceipte , & so to saue himselfe harmelesse . Some cal suche rough dealyng , Carters Sophistrie , when the fiste reasoneth a matter by buffites , which the tongue should proue by Argumentes . Again for the diuision when it is not well made , it is to be denyed in like maner , the cause showed why and wherefore , as thus .

●uery man is either wastefull or couetous ,

Cicero is man :

Ergo Cicero is either wastfull or couetous .

This deuision is not good , for many men offende in neither , but liue moderately● content with there owne , be it neuer so litle . Moreouer when no true cause is applied , but a false reason forged , ye may auoid daunger by denieng it , as thus .

Mony maketh vnthriftes ,

Ergo mony is naught .

¶ Or thus .

Five burneth houses ,

Ergo what shal we do with it .

¶ Or thus .

Water drowneth whole Cities ,

Ergo water is nothing profitable

In all suche Argumentes the true cause is omitted , and a counterfecte cause vsed . for neither mony , nor ●ire , not yet water , do harme of thē selues● but the naughtines of nature whiche abuseth them , & the necligence of man which forseeth not to them , is the verye true cause of their euil doyng : and yet in waightie matters suche fonde reasons haue bene vsed , as for the reading of Gods worde , for women to be learned , for Rethorick to be taught , or the temporall law at this daye in this our realme to be frequented , or occupied .

A distinction must be vsed , when any worde is doubtfull , and maie be taken diuersly● As thus .

Tyme healeth sicke folke ,

Ergo it is very good .

Here a distinction must be vsed , for tyme aswell signifieth an hearbe , as it signifieth the space , whiche is of an houre , daie , or yere . A frende of myne was called Harris . one not well knowyng his name , called him Harrisonne . I deny the sonne ( qd he ) not meanyng the second person in Trinitie , but the addicion of this worde ( sonne . )

A learned man & a Phisician ( some knowe whom I meane ) hauyng at a certain tyme a coate of Ueluet , that was muche worne , and bare at the brest , beyng then also poore withall , & hauyng a thyn●e purse , sittyng at a table , and laiyng his hande vpon his brest , saied thus merily to his frende : well ( qd he ) for all this harde worlde , at the worste I am thus muche worth , euen in bare Ueluet . Thesame man afterward , sittyng at a Table , not hauyng elbowe rowine , but beyng troubled , & his cote somwhat araied , which was dressed at the Shermans , not past two or thre dayes before , said merily : I praie you my Maisters bee good to my coate , for I promise you , within these two or thre daies , it hath scaipt a skowryng .

A young man of Cambridge , standyng in a Galarie ouer the water , and lokyng on his boke : hauyng the water on the one side , and a gardine on the other side , wherein as it chaunced then , were diuerse maidens of the toune ( for it was aboute Easter , at what tyme maidens gadded abrode , after thei had taken their maker , as thei cal it ) he beyng thus beset , one of his felowes beyng abrode , and seyng hym there , bad hym come to hym . He answered , I can not come . The other demaunded why ? Mary ( quod he ) because I am compassed with fire , and water . Meanyng the maidens to bee fire , and a prouocacion to lust , burnyng worse then fire : and ●o all good aucthors haue vsed this worde fire . As Terence . Accede ad ignem hunc , iam calesces plus satis . Come to this fire , saieth Parmeno to Phedria , meanyng Thais the harlotte , and you shal be as whote , as coles by & by . Therfore where such speache is vsed , it is alwaies called in latine metaphora . That is to saie , a turnyng from the proper significacion to that , whiche is not proper , wherein the olde Philosophers , haue wonderfully excelled , as Diogenes , Socrates , and in our tyme sir Thomas More , a man for his witte , very singulare .

The faulte that is in the forme , or maner of makyng , as we cal it , maie be dissolued , when we shewe that the conclusion , is not well proued , by the former proposicions , and that the argument , is either not well made , in figure or in mode , or in bothe : for of true thynges , none other thyng can be concluded but truthe , if the due forme of concludyng be obserued , and the iust placyng or settyng of the termes , called in Latine , termini , as ye hard before , be truly ke●t , as the rules before haue taught Notwithstandyng of false proposicions an vndoubted truth , maie wel enough be concluded , as thus .

Euery synne , maie bee suffere● in a common weale ,

Euery execucion done by a law is synne ,

Ergo euery execucion , do●n by lawe , may be suffered in a common weale .

The two first proposicions are manifestly false , and yet the conclusion is very true . So that ye maie se , after .ij. false proposicions , a true conclusion may folowe , and not contrary wise , of two true proposicions , a false conclusion can bee made . For as we saie in Latine . Ex ueris , nil nisi ue●ū sequitur , that is to saie , of true saiynges , nothing doth folowe but truth . Therfore when the conclusion semeth not good , ye maie iustly suspect the other two proposicions , although thei seme neuer so true , for vndou●tedly , the fault is either in the euill knittyng , ( when the argument is not in his mode , and figure accordyngly , ) or els in the confoundyng of wordes either not well placed , or euill applied or els in the doubtfulnes of some word

All riot is an offence .

No coueteousnes is riot ,

Ergo no coueteousnes is any offence .

Thus we se a false conclusion , made of twoo vndoubted true proposicions , and yet I said before , of true saiynges , nothyng doth folowe but onely truth . But abide , ye must examine this argument with the rules , & then ye shal se , that the fault is in the forme , or maner ●f makyng an argument . For it is in no mode of the first figure , although it be an argume●t of the first figure .

Some time the fault is only in the matter , & not in the maner of makyng an Argument , whereof there are diuerse examples aboue rehersed Somtimes the faulte is both in the matter , ●nd in the maner of makyng an Argume●t , as thus .

The yearth is profitable , and causeth much plentie ,

Men are in the yearth .

Ergo men are profitable , and cause much plentie .

First , it is in no figure , because the double repete in the first Proposicion is the substaunce of the yearth , and in the seconde Proposicion , is the beyng in the yearth , and so there ●e .iiij. termes , in the twoo Proposicions . Again it is in no mode , because the first Proposicion in the firste figure is not vniuersal . And this may suffise which hetherto I haue rehersed for the solutyng of an Argument , for asmuche as he that can deuide , define , and make his Argument in mode and figure , accordyng to the rules before mencioned , and diligently marke doubtful wordes : shall sone espie the faultes in an euill Argument , for asmuche as it cannot otherwise be , but that he which knoweth the beste , shall easely iudge , and with out difficultie espie the worst .

And nowe the rather to delite the reader , I wil adde here certaine wittie questions and argumentes , which can hardely be auoided , and yet pleasant , & therfore not vnworthie to be knowne .

¶ They are called trappyng Argumentes , because few that answere vnto them , can auoide daunger , and thu● they are named in straunge wordes .

Crocodilites . Antistrephon . Ceratine . A●is●aton . Cacosistaton . Vtis . Pseudomenos .

¶ Crocodilites .

CRocodilites , is suche a kynde of subtiltie that when we haue graunted a thyng to our aduersarie beyng as●ed before what we will say : the same turneth to our harme afterward : and causeth an inconuenience thervpon to ensew . Authours do feigne that the Crocodile beyng a monster in Egypt did take a womans childe from her , and spake with the mother in this wise : Woman I wil geue the thy child again , if thou wilt saye truth to me , & tel me assuredly , whether I will geue the thy childe againe or no ? She aunswered , I knowe assuredly thou wilt not geue me my childe again , and therfore it is reason I haue my child again because I haue said truth . Nay , saied the Crocodile , I wil not geue the thy childe again because thou maist be seen to haue said truth , lesse that yf I geue the thy child again , thou shouldst haue made a lie : neither yet woulde I haue giuen the thy child again , if thou hadst ●aid otherwise , because then thou hadst not said truth . And hereof this Argument hath his name , called Crocodilites . Notwithstandyng Luciane telleth this tale after an oth●r sort , & maketh Chris●ppus to aske an other man what he would saie , in case he shoulde be asked such a question of the Crocodile , as I haue before rehersed .

¶ Antistrephon .

ANtistrephon , is nothyng els , then to turne a mans saiyng into his owne necke again , and to make that whiche he bryngeth for his owne purpose , to serue for our purpose , in Latine it may be called , Inuersio . Aulu● Gellius hath a notable e●ample of Pithagoras , a noble Sophiste , & Euathus scholer to the same Pithagoras . This Euathus was a very riche young man , and glad to learne eloquence , and to pleade causes in the common place . This young man therfore consideryng Pithagoras to bee a singular man in this behalfe , & a mete Scholemaister for his purpose , desired to be his scholer , and promised to giue him a great some of mony , for his paines , euen asmuche as he woulde aske , and gaue him vpon agrement halfe in hande before he learned , and couenaunted their vpon that he should haue the other halfe euen the first daie that he stode at Bar●e , and by pleadyng , gotte the ouerhand in Iudgement of his aduersarie . After this , when he had bene a good while Pithagoras scholer , and profited very muche in the Law , & yet notwithstanding came not to the Barre , but stil shifted him of● and tracting the time ( of like because he would not paie the residue of his mony ) Pithagoras taketh aduisement as he himself thought , very subtlely , & chargeth him with his promise , hauyng an action of debte against him , and therefore he called him to the Lawe . Where when he had hi● before the Iudges , he begynneth his tale in this wise .

Here I haue the nowe ( saieth Pithagoras ) and learne , therefore folishe felowe as thou art , & marke this poinct for thy learnyng : whether the iudgement be geuen with the , or against the , I shall haue my money euery grote of it . If thou art cast in the lawe , I haue wonne by vertue of the lawe , yf thou art not cast , but gettest the ouerha●de by iudgement of the●e men , yet must I haue it neuerthelesse , because our bargain was so made , when I first began to teache the. Euathus hearyng this , aunswered as ye shall heare . I coulde easely syr auoide this your croked subtiltie , and be without all daunger , if I would not stand at the barre my self , but get some aduocate to stande for me , for by suche meanes , you could not charge me with any debte , consideryng I my selfe pleaded no cause . Notwithstandyng I like it better a thousande fold , that I my self am here personally , and speake in myne owne cause : seyng that not onelie , I will get the ouerhande of you in this our matter , wherebi I shal be discharged of debt , but also euen in this argument I will turne your own wordes into your owne necke agayne , and so triumphe both waies . And therfore learne you agayne as wyse as you are , and marke this poinct for your learnyng , whether the iudgement be ●euen with you , or again●t you , I shall saue my money , euerie grote of it . For if you be cast in the lawe , I haue wonne by vertue of the law , a●d so I owe you nothyng . If you be not cast , but gette the ouerhande of me , by the iudgement of these men : then according to my bargain , I shal paie you nothyng , b●cause I haue not gotten the ouerhande in iudgement . The iudges seyng the matter so doubtefull , & so harde to determine for eyther partie : fearing to do amisse , lefte the matter rawe without iudgement for that tyme , & differred the same to an other season . Thu● ye se that the yongin● be●ng the scholer , gaue his maister a bone to gnawe● and bette hym with ●is owne rodde , whiche the maister had made for his scholars tayle .

There is in Aristophanes a wonderful pretie talke , betwixt the father and the sonne , whiche serueth well for this purpose . For where as the sonne had beaten the father contrarie to al order and honestie , yet not withstandyng the sonne , thought he had as good aucthoritie to beate his father if he did am●sse ●s the father to beate hym . And therefore he sayde● wherefore should my father beate me ? His father made aunswere . Mary ( quod he ) because I loue the , and would thou shouldest do well . Mary therefore ( quod the sonne ) will I beate the to , because I loue the also good father , and would thou shouldest do well : and with that laide on strokes surely , tyll he made his father graunt that it was as lawfull for the sonne , to beate his father , as for the father to beate his sonne .

Ceratinae .

CEratin●● argumentationes , are called horned argumentes , the which are so daungerouse to aunswere vnto , for both partes propouned , that it wil be hard to escape a foyle . Euen as when ye se a bul , & wold catche hym by the hornes , ye se asmuch daunger in the one horn , as in the other● and so you feare to take him on either syde : In like case , when these horned argumentes are propouned , a man vneth can tell what to aunswere . As we reade in the gospel of Mathew the xxij . Chapiter , when the Phariseis did send their disciples ( whiche did pretende holines , & bare a face of true religion ) to take Christ in a snare . And therfore first thei came , geuyng hym a name of aucthoritie , & called him maister flatteryngly , as though he might speake his mynd frely to them , because ther was none but his Scholars , and suche as sought vnfaynedly to bee edefied in the truthe : secondly , they praise him for his goodnesse , that he is true in all his dealynges , and vseth no dissimulacion , and again thei saie , that not onely he is true , but also teacheth the waye ●f truthe , and then thus thei begin to question with hym , and to fele his mynd what he wil say ( for truly thei thought to take hym in a trip , whether he helde his peace , or spake ) and therefore thei said . Sir may we lawfully pay tribute to Cesar , or no ? Or how thy●ke you , doth it stand with Goddes word● , that we maie paie , or no ? Here Christe was beset twoo waies , first it was daungerous for him , to hold his peace : for then he might seme by so doyng , to haue respect to the person of men● and for feare not open the truth , in suche a weightie matter , and so stain the glory of God . Of the other part , if he should answer it ware a daungerous pece of worke , in like maner , for thei thought , he would either speake on Cesars side , & allowe payeng of Tribute , and so incurre the hatred of all the people , whereby thei might more boldly afterward● put him to death : or els thei thought , he would speake against Cesar , and so he should commit treason , and be apprehended therevpon , as a Traitour . But Iesus knowyng their naughtie purpose , and plainly seyng where about thei went , disapoyncted theim of their will , that thei could take none aduantage of him at al. And therfore he saied , because he would publishe their falsehode , what tempt you me ye ypocrites ? Shew me the coyne of the tribute , and thei toke hym a penny , and he saied vnto theim : whose is this Image and superscripcion Thei said vnto hym , Cesars . Then said he , geue therefore vnto Cesar the thynges whiche are Cesars , and vnto God those thynges whiche are goddes . Christ did not at the first when thei propounded their question vnto him , plainly saie , geue vnto Cesar the thynges , whiche are Cesars , but when he had asked them whose coyne it was , and that thei by their awne confession , had granted it to be Cesars , whereby thei bare witnesse of themselfes that they ware subiect to Cesar , he saied , for asmuche as you graunt your selfes by the vertue of this coyne to be tributaries , pay on goddes name to Cesar the thynges that pertayne to Cesar , & vnto God those thynges that are gods .

Cacosistata .

CAcosistata are suche argumentes that beyng propounded , betwene twoo persones , thei serue aswell for the one parte , as the other , as thus . You muste forgeue hym , because he is but a child , no mary , therfore wil I beate hym , because he is a childe● or thus . This man should not be iudged to dye , by any temporall lawe , because he is a priest . yes mary therfore should he be Iudged to dye , because he is a priest , and hath offended , whiche should haue geuen good example to other of well liuyng .

Asistata .

ASistata are suche argumentes , as are impo●sible to be true , as when a child of two yeres old , should be accused of aduoutrie , as though it wer like , that he could offende in suche filthinesse .

Vtis .

VTis is nothynge els , but when one goth aboute to proue a thyng , and maketh that which shoulde proue , to bee as vncertain , as that thyng , whiche is proued , as thus . In Purgatorie synn●s are forgeuen , by vertue of the Masse , ergo we must say Masse still . Whereas I thynke there is no godly wise man , but doubteth asmuche that Purgatorie is , as he maie iustly saie , that the masse saueth no man .

¶ Pseudomenos .

THis is called a liynge argument , for what so euer ye shall saye , ye must nedes sa●e ami●●e . Epimenides a man borne in Crete saied that the people borne in Crete , were liers , said he true , or no ? if ye saye that he saide truth , I may well say●●hat can not be wel said , for if the p●ople in Crete be lyers , then lied Epimenides , because he was a man their borne , and one of Crete , and saied they ware l●ers . Againe if ye iudge that Epimenid●s said false , and that the people there , be no liars , then Epimenides saied truth euen when he said , the people of Crete are liars , because he himself was a man of Crete . But this subtiltie is thus auoided , yf ye will saie that where as mention is made of the people in Crete , yet all are not comprehended vnder the same , neither is the Proposicion vniuersal but indefinite , that is to say , not comprehendyng all but certaine , as thus . The people of C●ete are lyars , truth it is , that many of them be liars , & y●t Epimenides may be excepted , & be a true man of his worde , notwithstandyng . As also he that was warned in his slepe not to giue credite to any dreames , did not thinke that dreame vaine , although he iudged many other to be litle estemed , and smal hede to be taken to them . For by this dreame he was warned not to beleue gretly other dreames , and yet not withstandynge he was warned to beleue this dreame .

NOw that I haue brought this rude worke to some ende , and for this tyme framed it , so wel as I coulde , I desire of al men th●re fauourable helpe , to supporte my weakenes , or at the least , to geue me none euell reporte , for my well meanyng , & then I shall thinke my selfe sufficientlie rewarded . But if offence shoulde breede through laboure susteined , and no fauour gotten , when gentlenesse had bene offered , it had bene as good ( in my minde ) to plaie and lose nothyng , as to take paines , and lose all . But my trust beyng stayed vpon the honest and godlie affected , I haue trauailed without feare , hopyng well that my doynges shal be taken without blame . And therfore this obtei●ed , I shal desire al men for the loue of God to embrace the truthe , and not to wedde themselfes to any opinion without some staye or sure foundation of goddes truth . And where as God is the authour of peace and conco●de , and loueth them , that vnfeynedly call vpon hym in truth : I shall hartely praie to God that al we maie drawe after one line , and seke one vniforme and sounde doctrine , to the prayse of God , and the comfort of our soules . And because some heades are very bolde to entre farther , then witte can retche , or el● haue a mynde vaynelie to question , of thynges not ned●full : I thought it not amysse to set forth here Aristoteles minde , as touchyng thynges that shold not be brought in question . There be foure thynges ( saieth he ) which should not be examined by reason . And first no man ought to argue of those thynges wherein if any one put doubte , he deserueth punishement . As to reason whether there be a God or no. And therefore Tullie sayeth very wel , it is a wicked and an vngodly custome , to dispute or talke against God , either in earnest , or yet in sporte . Again it is fondnesse , to reason of those thynges which our senses iudge to be true . As to know by reason , whether fire be hote , or no. the whiche were madnesse to aske , and surely , if any one should so reason with me , I would bidde hym putte his fynger in it . Thirdely , it is euell to reason of those thynges , whiche can not bee knowen by mans witte . As to knowe what God the father is in persone , what the holy ghoste is , howe they sytte and are placed in heauen , or of what makyng the soule of man is . Fourthlie , to talke and dispute of those thynges , whiche are vndoubtedly true . As in Arithmetike .iii. and .iij. are syx . In Philosophie . The whole is greater then the parte . In all whiche matters to moue any earnest question , or to doubte ouermuch in thinges nothing doubtefull , is either starke madnesse , or els playne foolyshnesse . Therefore I wyshe of GOD , that all oure reasonyng myght be fastened vpon suche m●tters , as are necessary both for the bearer to learne , and also good , for the godlye reasoner , to teache . Wherein though I haue done nothyng so well my selfe , as my good will was thereunto , yet I trust al honest hartes , wil testifie with me , that I haue moste earnestlie mynded the glorie of God , and the settyng forth of his holy name , throughout the whole course of this my rude and symple booke : the whiche ones done and knowen● I hope the gentle reader will beare with me in other thynges , and pardone such faultes , as through ignoraunce haue escaped , or els for lack of tyme could not well be altered . God be praysed .

An admonition to the reader for faultes escaped in the Printyng .

SO it was gentle and louyng reader , that I wrote this boke in suche a tyme , as when I had not so conuenient leasour for the good placing and true examinyng therof , as sence I came to the printing of the same I wyshed that I had . And the maner of imprintyng beyng suche , that whatsoeuer is not made perfite before it cometh to the prynte , cannot without the great losse and hynderaunce of the Prynter , bee then altered or amended . By reason whereof , certayne sentences herein are passed muche sleyghter , then with aduisement , either they should , or that I would haue suffered , if other wise I myght haue remedied them . And therefore moste humbly and h●rtely I desyre the , whatsoeuer thou be to reade this worke frendly and fauourably , and where cause of imperfection is found , to set to thy amendyng hande , consideryng that no one thyng that euer was wrought by man , was made perfight at the first , and then shal I haue no cause to feare , but that these my labours shal be accepted in good parte , howsoeuer either by ignoraunce or by negligence , any thyng shall seme to be omitted , or not done accordyngly . And thus moste hartely fare well .

Imprinted at London by Richard Grafton , printer to the Kynges Maiestie . Anno. M. D. LI.

Cum priuilegio ad Imprimendum solum .