SECT. I. That the Greeks were inferior to the Romans in most Points of useful knowledge .

BEING at length wholly or in great part , eas'd of the toyle of Pleading , and State Affairs . I have , chiefly upon your advice , most worthy Brutus , turn'd my thoughts to those Studies which I had indeed retain'd in mind , but after long dis-continuance upon incursion of business , and the late Troubles I have resum'd . Now whereas the Systems and Circle of all those Arts which relate to direction in the way of well-living , are compriz'd in the Study of Wisdom , so call'd Philosophy ; this I have thought expedient to illustrate in Latin . Not but that Philosophy may be learn'd from Greek Treatises and Tutors . But I have still been of the Judgment that my Country-men have either invented all things more wisely than the Greeks , or improv'd whatever they receiv'd from them , which they counted worth the bestowing their time and pains upon . For as to personal deportment , and ordering Family Concerns , we support them with much more Splendor and Discretion . But as to the publick , our Ancestors settled the State upon unquestionably better Laws and Customs . What need I mention the Military part , wherein my Country-men have excell'd as in Valour , so much more in Discipline ? Now for those Advantages which are the Products of Nature , not acquists of Study , neither Greeks nor any other Nation under Heaven may compare with them . For what Gravity , what Constancy of mind , what Resolution , Honor , Conscience , what so universal excellency of Vertue , hath been any where to be found , as might match the old Roman ? Greece indeed had better Scholars and more Books , wherein the Victory was easily gain'd over them that made no Resistance . For whereas the ancientest sort of learned men among the Greeks were their Poets , ( if it be true that Homer and Hesiod were before the building of Rome , and A●chilochus in the Reign of Romidus ) Poetry came later among us , for about CCCCX . after the building of Rome , Livy put out the first Play , in the Consulship of C. Claudius Son of Appius the blind , and M. Tuditanus the year before Ennius was born , who was elder than Plautus and Naevius . *

SECT. II. However Superior in Poetry , Pictures , Musick and Geometry .

THerefore was it late before Poets were either understood or countenanc'd among us . Although it be Recorded in the Antiquities , that the Romans were wont in their solemn Festivals to sing to the sound of the Pipe , Commemorations of men of Renown . Yet that this sort of Bards were in no credit , is evident from the Oration of the same Cato , wherein he objects it by way of reproach against M. Nobilior , that he had carried Poets into the Country where his Government lay . Now when he was Consul , he had taken Ennius along with him into Aetolia , as is well known . The less Reputation therefore Poets found , the less did men addict themselves to Poetry . And yet if any great Wits have appear'd , whose Genius led them that way , these have equalliz'd the Character of the most fam'd Greeks . Can we imagine if Painting had been judg'd a Commendation to that noble Personage , Fabius , there would not have been among the Romans too , many a Polyclete and Parrhasius ? Honor cherisheth Arts , and we are all inflam'd by Glory , to the more industrious pursuit of our Studies : Whereas all things that are unfashionable in any People , lye disregarded . The Grecians thought a high prize of skill plac'd in understanding Vocal and Instrumental Musick . Therefore Epaminondas , in my Judgment , the greatest man of Greece , is reported to have play'd singularly well on the Lute . Whereas Themistocles some years before , for having refus'd the Harp , coming to him at a Feast , was censur'd for want of Breeding . This was the reason that Greece flourish'd with Musicians ; all learn'd to Play , and he that was not Musical , was judg'd deficient in gentile Education . Geometry was among them in great request , therefore nothing was more famous than their Mathematicians . But we have restrain'd the compass of this Art , within the necessary uses of surveying and casting up Accompts .

SECT. III. Have overtaken them in Rhetorick , which is encouragement to set upon Philosophy .

WHen on the contrary we soon clos'd with the Orator , at first no Scholar , but of a popular Eloquence , though plain ; afterwards Scholar too , for Galba , Africanus , Laelius , are reported to have been learned ; and Cato who liv'd before them to have studied after these , Lepidus , Carbo , the Gracchi ; since whom down to our Age , men so ev'ry ways acomplish'd , that we come not much if any thing at all , behind the Greeks . Philosophy to this Age hath lain neglected , nor receiv'd any lustre from the Latin Tongue , which is our present attempt to raise up and illustrate that so , if , when employ'd , we were any way serviceable to our Country-men , we may further serve them in our retirements , wherein we are oblig'd to use the more diligence , because many Books are said to be already written in Latin unadvisedly by well-meaning but insufficient men . Now it is possible , that one may have true Conceptions , and yet not be able to express his Notions in proper Terms ; but for a man to commit his thoughts to writing for the publick , who can neither put them in due method , nor illustrate them with clear Proofs , nor by any delightful Ornaments entertain his Reader , is the part of one that at no rate abuses his own time , and the benefit of Writing . Hereupon they read their own Books among themselves , nor doth any one else meddle with them , but they that expect allowance to write after the same loose fashion . Whereupon if we have brought Oratory any credit by our Industry , we shall much more earnestly discover the Springs of Philosophy , from whence those other Rivulets issued . *

* We soon clos'd with the Orator ] Tulley hath done his Pro●●●● that Honor , as to draw up an accurate List of the 〈◊〉 Roman Advocates , with their Character , in a Trea●●●● 〈◊〉 to the same Brutus , and thence stil'd Brutus , 〈…〉 the famous Orators .

〈…〉 Books are said to be already written in Latin ] He in●● 〈…〉 Epicurean Pieces crudely done into Latin , by 〈◊〉 and Amafinius known to him only by hearsay , but 〈◊〉 as he would not give himself the trouble to read 〈…〉 .

SECT. IV. Philosophy joyn'd with Oratory is more beneficial .

BUT as Aristotle a man of an incomparable Wit , and great variety of knowledge , being mov'd with the glory of Isocrates the Rhetorician , begun himself to make Orations , and to teach his Pupils so to do , and to joyn Prudence with Eloquence ; in like manner are we resolv'd both not to disuse our ancient Practice of Oratory , and withall to exercise our selves in this more sublime and copious Art . For I ever judg'd that to be perfect Philosophy , an ability to discourse at large and floridly upon the most important Points . To which exercise we have so diligently apply'd our selves , that we have already presum'd after the Greek Mode , to hold formal Disputations , and oppose what question should be Problematically maintain'd ; as of late since your departure , having many of my Acquaintance with me in my Country-house at Tusoulum , I made trial of my Abilities that way . For as heretofore I was us'd to declaim upon Law-Cases , which no man continu'd to do longer than I ; so now this serves for my Declamation in old Age. I bid one propound such Subjects as he was willing to hear controverted ; upon this I disputed either as I sate or walked . So I have cast the dayes Acts as they call them into so many Books . The manner of which was , that when the Learner had propos'd his Judgment , I oppos'd . For this is the old and Socratick way to dispute against anothers Opinion ; by which means Socrates thought it might be most easily discover'd , what carried along with it the greatest Probability . But that our Disputations may be more clearly comprehended , I shall lay them down , so as if they were upon the place kept , not barely reported . Thus therefore shall the entrance upon the present Debate naturally arise . *

SECT. V. The Position . Sophister .

I Am of the Judgment that [ Death ] is evil .

Master ,

Whether to them that are dead , or to them that must dye ?

S.

To both .

M.

It is therefore miserable because evil .

S.

True .

M.

Therefore they who are already dead , and they who must hereafter dye , are both miserable .

S.

That is my opinion .

M.

There is none therefore but who is miserable .

S.

No not one .

M.

Nay further , if you will be true to what you hold , all that ever were or shall be born , are not only miserable , but also for ever miserable . For had you only held them miserable who must dye , you had excepted none of them who are alive ; for all must dye ; yet death would have been the end of misery ; but because they who be dead are also miserable , a we are born to everlasting Misery . For of necessity they are miserable who were dead a 100000 years ago , or rather all that ever were born .

S.

I am clearly of that Perswasion .

M.

Prithee tell me , do these Advises from under ground scare you ? The black Mastiff with three Heads , the howling River , the Ferry over the Stygian Lake , Tantalus chin-deep in Water choak'd with thirst ? Doth

— Sisyphus his ponderous Stone , Tug'd up with sweat , still rolling down alone ?

Perhaps too those inexorable Justicers Minos and Rhadamanthus , before whom you can have neither Lucius Crassus , nor Mark Antony to plead your Cause ; nor , because the Matter is to be try'd before Greek Judges , can you have Demosthenes for Counsel ; your self must make your own defence in the greatest of all Assemblies . These things perhaps you dread , and therefore apprehend death as an eternal Evil.

SECT. VI. The Local Hell , describ'd by Poets is fictitious . S

DO you take me to be so destitute of Reason , as to believe these Legends ?

M.

What do not you verily believe them ?

S.

Not I at all .

M.

You tell me ill news .

S.

How so ? I beseech you .

M.

Because I could have past for a Wit in confuting them .

S.

And who might not on such a Subject ? or what difficulty is it to prove these to be meer extravagancies of Poets and Painters ?

M.

Why ? there are whole Book-fulls in the Philosophers , of Disputations , to overthrow these Supposititions .

S.

To much purpose indeed ; for who is so senseless as to be concern'd at them ?

M.

If therefore there be none miserable under ground , neither are there any Persons under ground .

S.

I am clear of your mind in that .

M.

Where then are those that you call miserable ? or what place do they inhabit ? for , if they be , they cannot be no where .

S.

Yes , I think them to be no where .

M.

Therefore neither to be .

S.

Well , as you say , and yet miserable for that very reason , because they be not .

M.

Nay , now had I rather you were afraid of Cerberus , than to use such inconsiderate Discourse .

S.

How so ?

M.

You say that the same is not , and yet is . Where is your Subtilty ? for when you say he is miserable , you then say that he who is not , yet is .

S.

I am not so stupid as to say that .

M.

What is it then that you say ?

S.

That M. Crassus , for instance , is miserable , who by death was taken from that Estate . Cn. Pompey miserable , who was depriv'd of so great Glory ; in a word , that all are miserable who lack this chearful light .

M.

You come round thither where you were before ; for they needs must be , if they are miserable , but you lately deny'd that the Dead are ; if therefore they are not , they cannot be any thing , and by consequence not miserable .

S.

Perchance I do not yet speak out my meaning , for I take that very thing to be most miserable for him not to be that hath been .

M.

What ? more miserable than for one never to have been at all ? by the same reason they that are yet unborn , are already miserable , because they are not . And we our selves , if we shall be miserable after we are dead , were so before we were born ; but I do not remember that I was miserable before I was born : you , if you have a better Memory , I would fain know whether you remember any such thing of your self ? *

* To prove these to be meer Extravagancies of Poets and Painters . ] The Body in a State of Separation in insensible : nor did they expect a Resurrection of the Body , only by Faith in the sacred Testimonies apprehended : therefore to place Hell in bodily Sufferings , seem'd to them repugnant both to Sense and Reason . Yet they own'd the Souls of the deceas'd to enter into a State of Happiness or Misery according to their Actions in this Life .

SECT. VII . They who are not , are not miserable . S.

YOU make a Droll of it , as if I said they are miserable who are not born , and not those that are dead .

M.

You say then that these are .

S.

Nay , but because they have been , and are not , that they are miserable .

M.

Do not you perceive that you speak Contradictions ? for what is so opposite , as that he should be not only miserable , but any thing , who is not at all ? (b) As you go out at the Capuan Gate , and see there the Sepulchres of Calatinus , the Scipio's , the Servilii . and Marcelli , can you judge them miserable ?

S.

Because you pinch me with cavilling at a word , I shall hereafter forbear to say they are miserable , but only term them miserable for that very reason because they are not .

M.

You do not say then M. Crassus is miserable , but miserable M. Crassus .

S.

Right .

M.

As though whatsoever is pronounc'd of any one , were not of necessity either so , or not so ; have you not so much as learn'd the Rudiments of Logick ? for this is a fundamental Maxim there , that every Proposition must be either true or false ; when therefore you say miserable M. Crassus , either you say M. Crassus is miserable , that it may be brought to trial whether it be true or false ; or you say nothing at all .

S.

Well then , I grant that they are not miserable who are dead , because you have wrack'd out of me the Confession , that (a) they who have no being , cannot be so much as miserable ; what say you of us that are alive , can we be other than miserable , since we must dye ? for what enjoyment can there be in life , when we are to think day and night that dye we must of a certain , and it is uncertain whether this or the next Moment ?

SECT. VIII . Nor is dying a miserable thing , it is assay'd , to prove it rather good . M.

DO you come then to understand of how much evil you have discharg'd humane Condition ?

S.

Which way ?

M.

Because , if dying had been miserable to them that are dead , we should have had an endless and everlasting evil in Life . Now I see the Goal , whether when I have finish'd my course nothing further is to be fear'd . But you seem to me to be of Epicharmus's mind , an acute man , and not unfacetious , as being a Sicilian .

S.

What was his mind ? for I do not know it .

M.

I will tell you if I can translate it , for you know I no more use to bring in ends of Greek in a Latin Discourse , than when I am speaking Greek to come in with Latin Sentences .

S.

In that you are right : but what , I pray , is that saying of Epicharmus ?

M.

To dye I 'me loth , but weigh not to be dead .

S.

Now I find the Greek by his subtlety , but since you have forc'd me to yield , that they who are dead , are not miserable ; perswade me , if you can , that it is not a miserable thing that we must dye .

M.

There is now no great difficulty in that , but I aim at higher Matters .

S.

How no great difficulty in that ? or what can be those higher Matters ?

M.

Because if there be no evil after death , neither can death it self be evil , for the time which immediately follows it is after death , wherein you allow that there is no evil , upon which follows , that neither is it evil that we must dye ; which is , we must arrive thither , where we confess is no evil .

S.

Speak to that I pray more largely ; for these captious questions sooner gain of me a Confession than a Conviction . But what are those higher Matters that you say you aim at ?

M.

To make out , if I am able , that death is so far from being evil , that it is good .

S.

I do not require that from you , but would gladly hear it ; for though you should not demonstrate what you attempt , yet you will gain the question that death is not evil . Proceed then , I shall not interrupt you . I had rather hear it in a continu'd Speech .

M.

What if I should ask you any thing , would you not answer me ?

S.

That were an uncivil part , but unless there be a necessity , I had rather you would for bear it . *

* If there be no evil after death , neither can death it self be evil . ] Death as a passage to a State of insensibility can have no very formidable aspect : and this is offer'd to overthrow the first Branch in the disjunctive Syllogisme , as if death were evil to them that are to dye . But the Heathen World knew not the universal calpableness of mankind : the rigorous Sanction of a just Law , and Power of the Law-giver to put his Sentence in Execution , wherein the Terrors of Death doth consist .

SECT. IX . What is death , what the Soul , in vulgar Opinion . M.

I Will comply with you , and to my best Ability declare what you desire ; yet not so as if inspir'd by Pythian Apollo , I should speak nothing that were no Oracle and Infallible ; but as a weak man of like frailty with the rest of Mankind , pursuing what hath greatest appearance of Truth ; for beyond probabilities , I am not able to advance . Let (a) them deliver Certainties , who both affirm these Matters to be comprehensible , and profess themselves to have arriv'd at Perfection .

S.

In that , as you please , we are prepar'd to give attention .

M.

Death then however universally it may seem to be known , must first be enquir'd what it is . Some hold death to be a Separation of the Body from the Soul . Others think there is no Separation , but that both Soul and Body determine at once , and that the Soul is extinguish'd with the Carkass . Of those who judge that the Soul departs , some hold that it presently scatters ; some again , after a long space ; others maintain that it endures for ever . Now what it is , where seated , or whence it cometh , is matter of great Controversie . Some take it to be the heart ; whence men are said to be without Heart , of a bad Heart , or of one Heart . And that great Statesman Nasica , who was twice Consul , had the Surname of Wise-heart .

And the old Poet terms ,

Wise Aelius Sextus of an heart Profound .

Empedocles thinks the Soul to be the Bloodshed through the Heart . Others judge that a part of the Brain is the Principle of Sense and Understanding . Another Party cannot agree , either the one or other to be the Soul , but these lodge it in the Heart , those in the Brain as its Seat or Palace . Others , and among them we in our own Language use the name Soul and Spirit promiscuously ; for we say to gasp and expire , or give up the Ghost ; also men of a gallant Spirit , of a sound Spirit and the like . As for Spirit it is , being interpreted , Breath . Zeno the Stoic holds the Soul to be a Fire .

(a) Let them deliver Certainties . ] He reflects upon the Stoics , who were very positive , and Pretenders to perfect Wisdom .

SECT. X. What it is in the Judgment of divers Philosophers .

BUT these which I have recited , that the Soul should be Heart , Brains , Breath , Fire are vulgar Opinions ; the remaining private Doctors have held , and some of the Ancient ones . Of later date Aristoxenus , Musician and Philosopher too , maintain'd it was a certain Key to which the body was strain'd , as in the tuning of an Instrument ; so by the nature and posture of the Body , variety of Motions were rais'd , and as Notes in Musick . He kept to his Art , yet somewhat he said , which somewhat such as it was , had been long before both said and explain'd by Plato . Xenocrates deny'd that the Soul hath any corporeal Figure , but said it was a number , whose Power , as Pythagoras had before held , was of great Efficacy in Nature . His Master Plato divided the Soul into three Parts . The Principal of these , which is Reason , he plac'd in the Head as in its Citadel , and separated into two , Anger and Lust , which he lodg'd in different Apartments , placing Anger in the Stomach , and Lust under the Entrails . But Dicaearchus in that Discourse which he held at Corinth , and put out in three Books in the Person of learned men , in the first Books brings in many Disputants ; in the two latter introduceth one Pherecrates an old man of Phthia , whom he alledgeth as descended of Deucalion , and there to argue that there is no such being as a Soul ; that it is a meer Name without a Notion , and that we speak improperly in saying , that Creatures have a living Soul ; whereas in truth there is neither in Man nor Beast , any such thing as Soul or Spirit , but all that Power which produceth in us Actions of the Mind , or Senses is an equal Complexion of the Elements , nor can subsist in a separate Estate , as being no substance , but plain body , which under such a Figure , is by its natural Temper dispos'd to Vegetation and Sense . Aristotle who far surpasseth all others ( Plato alwayes excepted ) both in Parts and Industry , after he had computed the four Elements which furnish material cause of existence to all compound Bodies , pitches upon a fifth Essence , of which the rational Soul should consist ; for to think and forecast , to learn and teach , to invent , with so many other Abilities of Memory , Love , Hatred , Desire , Fear , Anxiety , Joy , he doth not conceive these and the like , can be inherent in any of those four Elements . Hereupon he adds a fifth nameless Nature , and so calls the Soul by the new name of a pure Act , being in continu'd and perpetual Motion .

SECT. XI . Inferences from these diverse Opinions .

THese are almost all the Opinions about the Soul , as far as I can recollect ; for let us wave Democritus , a brave man indeed and excellent Scholar , but who fram'd the Soul upon a casual rencounter of smooth and globular Moths , for among those Gentlemen there is no feat so strange , but what omnipotent Atomes can perform . Of these Opinions which is true , God alone knows ; which hath the greatest appearance of truth , is much to be question'd . Had we best therefore discuss these different Opinions , or return to the enquiry at first propos'd ?

S.

I would fain both might be , if it were possible ; but it is hard to confound them : Wherefore , if without scanning them at large , we may be deliver'd from the Terrors of death , let that be our business ; but if that cannot be obtain'd till this question of the Souls nature be decided , let us now dispatch this , and that another time .

M.

I judge that more convenient , which I find you like better ; for it will be concluded with good Reason , that whatsoever of those Opinions which I have alledged , prove true , death must be either not evil , or rather good . For if the Soul be Heart , or Blood , or Brains , of a certain , because it is Corporal , it will dye with the other Body . If it be breath , perhaps it will scatter into thin Air : If Fire , it will be quench'd : If it be the Harmony of Aristoxenus , it will be discomposed . What need I mention Dicaearchus , who allows not the Soul to be any Substance ? according to all these Opinions , none hath any concern after Death ; for Life and Sense are extinguish'd together . But what is insensible , hath neither interest in good or evil . The Judgments of the rest open some door of Hope , if this may chance to please you , that our Souls , when they have escap'd out of our Bodies , may arrive at Heaven , as at their own Home .

S.

That is well pleasing to me , and I could principally wish that it were so . But next , however it is , could be contented with the perswasion that it were so .

M.

What need have you of our pains to that purpose ? can we surpass Plato in Eloquence ? Read over diligently his Book about the Soul , you will need no further Information .

S.

I have in truth done so , and that many times ; but , I know not how , whilst I am in reading I yield my assent ; when I have laid down the Book , and begin to meditate with my self upon the Soul's Immortality , all my former Assent slips out of my mind .

M.

What think you of this ? do you grant that Souls do either subsist after death , or determine upon death ?

S.

I readily grant it .

M.

(b) What if they survive ?

S.

I allow they are blessed .

M.

If they dye ?

S.

That they are not miserable , because they have no being ; for that Point upon compulsion from you , we a little before granted .

M.

How then , or wherefore do you say death in your judgment to be an evil , which either renders us blessed in case the Soul survive , or not miserable , as being without all Sense ?