THE Republick of Venice , consecrated from its very beginning to Religion and Liberty , had its prosperous birth in the fifth Age of our Redemption . If it may be said , that the age of States is better measured by power , than time , its Infancy lasted for many Ages , during which , with uncorrupted Laws and Manners , and the security of their scituation , they frustrated the fierce assaults of barbarous Nations , and the ambition of other Princes . The first time she took up Arms , was in defence of Piety and Justice ; afterwards they were imployed against those , who envying their Liberty , went about to disturb their Quiet . And so the Francks and Huns being repulsed in the inmost parts of their Chanels and Ports , she began to be more considered , and the Government through the Concord of the Citizens , and the Authority of the Laws , to settle and grow up into a more strong complexion . Liberty was no sooner secured , but there arose Contests about Empires . The first undertakings in that Age , were against the Dalmatians and Istrians . Those of Ancona , and others of the Sea-Coasts were also conquered , so that having gotten with the price of Blood , the dominion of the Adriatick Sea , as a Patrimony , she increased in Wealth and Power to such a degree , that she not only repulsed , but very often overcame the Hungarians , Sarazens , Greeks , Normans , and those of Pisa , and Genova , enriching her self with their States and spoils . Her expeditions into the Holy-Land were very powerful , united with the Francks ; she destroyed the Grecian Empire , and alone undertook the Defence of Pope Alexander III ; with the success of her Arms abroad , ( a thing that seldom happens ) she rectified all things at home , and brought her self to that Constitution , which at this Day we see her in ; equally durable and wonderful . No body was able now to resist her at Sea ; and in the 15th Age of Christ she impowred her self with considerable additions at Land . She got Friuli , Padua , Verona , and Vincenza , with large Territories ; and passing the Mineio , squaring her Empire , extended her Borders to the River Adda , and Po. She had Romagna under Protection , and Puglia in Mortgage . But as she grew Great , others grew Envious ; whereupon after the Year 1500. all the Princes of Christendom , and some of them against the stile of their own Interest , united to restrain her encreasing Power . This was a terrible shock , the Destiny of the Common-wealth alone being exposed to hazard against the Fortune of all Europe . But the Prudence of the Government , the Constancy of their Minds , the Faithfulness of the Common People , and the Reconciliation with France , extricated all their difficulties ; Liberty in the close remaining unviolated , and the Empire for the most part confirmed . But her State , which was to be looked at as the Basis of all Italy , could not be in trouble without putting the whole Country into a Convulsion . Insomuch that although the Venetians after the Peace of Bologn , saw themselves in a Calm , the rest lay for the most part under the slavery of Strangers .

The Common-wealth at this time was incompassed by Sea , and by Land , with two great Powers ; divided according to the four Cardinal points of the World , East and South with the Ottoman Family , and West and North with the House of Austria . She therefore fixed her thoughts in the Arts of Preservation , and of Peace , watching upon what was fit for her and her Friends , and for her own , and common Liberty . The Turks gave her two great Attacques by Sea in the Years 1537 , and 1570. carrying away rich and great spoils . But the famous Victory of Curzolary signed Peace for a long time , during which they strengthned the Defence of their Empire , beautified their City , gave vigour to their Forces , furnished their Arsenals , and layed up a no small Treasure . She maintained a very long quiet in Italy , and though the Wars betwixt France and Spain did for many Years disturb it , she notwithstanding observed a constant neutrality . The whole Country setling afterward into a most Happy Peace , kept not without jealousy by the Foreigners themselves , the Venetians made it their business to preserve that present tranquillity , sometime diverting the storm at the first appearance , and sometimes , according to the occasion , opposing themselves with Declarations and Treaties . The War which hapned betwixt France and Spain in the beginning of this present Age , did not penetrate into Italy . Some stirs occasioned by the Interest of the Grisons were quieted . The differences risen with Pope Paul the Fifth were terminated with increase of reputation , and advantage for the Republick ; and that thunder of War , which was threatned by Henry the Fourth , vanished with his death . All things thus contributing to the Peace of Italy , Wisemen nevertheless were not free from fear , lest many disgusts lurking secretly in the hearts , and several designs in the minds of Princes , there would be a new Rupture , so soon as any occasion or pretext for it did appear . And in that thought they were not long deceived , for in the brightest Serenity of this Peace , the blow hapned at unawares , with so much slaughter , and so many mischiefs , that defiling Italy , it hath put Europe into confusion .

This shall be the subject , and first part of this work of mine ; because as the Interests of the Republick refer principally to those two great powers of Austria and the Turks , with whom it borders ; so the Narrative shall be divided . And I will describe in this , the most notable events which have troubled Italy ; and in which the Republick hath assisted with their Counsels , Arms , and Treasures : And for the other part shall be reserved the Memorials of its long and generous defence against the Ottoman Empire . And because Italy , being the heart of Europe , cannot suffer a shaking but the rest must be moved , and have a feeling of it , you shall read herein connexed the Affairs and Actions of the chief Princes of the World , the Conduct and Maxims of their chief Ministers , with the Revolutions of States , and so many other accidents , as make the Age no less Unhappy than Famous , and the Relation equally important .

For the better knowledge of the things to follow , it is needful to look a little back : Princes , though Mortal , are the Genii of the World . The effects of their Counsels out-live their Lives , and are like the Stars , whose influences remain long , though they disappear from our sight . When Arragon in the Person of Ferdinand the Catholick was joined to Castile , and all the Kingdoms within the compass of Spain were in a manner united together , comprehending also the Islands of the Mediterranean , and both the Sicilies , there was laid the Foundation of a vast Monarchy . Fortune , to second the design with vast Riches , about this time discovered a new World . The Provinces of Flanders fell afterwards in , changing only the Line of Blood , but without the least alteration in the series of their Maxims and Interests . In Charles the Fifth , the Crowns of the Empire and Spain , and their great power were conjoined together . He neither wanted Wisedom nor Fortune to establish an Universal Hereditary Monarchy : but as all ages are for the most part barren of Princes of consideration , so his seemed as fruitful , having Francis the first King of France , and Solyman Emperour of Turky to oppose him ; The first , his Peer in courage ; the other equal , if not Superiour , in Power . Charles therefore thought it best to leave the hopes and means to his Successors . Italy by reason of its scituation , Nobleness , Strength , Riches , and a certain fatality , which destines her to bear Rule , hath always been the first Object of great Conquerours ; and Charles failed not to increase his Dominion thus , joining the Milanese to Spain , and putting a foot into Tuscany . But he quickly found , that every foot of ground cost a Battel ; That the Princes were impatient of the yoke , and Strangers were ready to assist : He therefore thinking the Counsel most safe to encompass her without , that so at last she might fall insensibly into his hand , attempted to cajole Germany , and leave the Empire to his Son . The design failing him , and he from a religious consideration , a satiety of Fortune , or from domestick Interests , betaking himself to a private life and the repentance of having been so great , leaves to Philip the Second , the hereditary Kingdoms of Spain , with their vast appurtenances . The Peace of Italy passed as in a mystery and by tradition from Father to Son ; who no less wise than great , applied his Ax to the root of that , which might most disturb the design of his Monarchy . He employs therefore all his power against England and France , but having consumed Armies and Treasure in vain , while he was distracted by the revolt in Holland , and although he had added Portugal to Castile , and with it the increase of a vast power , yet at the end of a few years , he found sufficiently his Credit , Money , and Strength weakned . He then makes trial of peaceable means , giving to the Provinces of Flanders remaining in their obedience ( to the end to re-unite the rest ) a Prince of their own . He left France to the destiny of its domestick revolts ; and Italy charmed with the deliciousness of Peace , and the opinion of their present felicity .

Philip the third succeeded him , a young Prince , of singular Piety , but wholly unacquainted with Government , and contenting himself with the Royal dignity , left the power to his Council , Favourites and Ministers . These judged it necessary to go on in the same Maxims of Peace , because in France they found Henry the Fourth , a formidable and vigilant King , who having gloriously made his passage through the jaws of an adverse fortune , suffered not himself to be gulled by prosperity , but would be ready to disturb , and prevent whatever designs they should have against him . Truce was therefore concluded with the United Provinces of the Low-Countries ; and to divert the scourge of the French Arms from Italy , procuring the Duke of Savoy to make Peace upon disadvantageous terms , they thought it a great conquest , that they had shut out the French beyond the Alps. And now fixing their thoughts on those advantages , which time and occasion uses to offer to those in Power , silently extending themselves by little and little , they got their limits inlarged , and their Kingdoms and Territories better united ; and last of all under the title of Honour and Protection , holding dependent , and in a manner subject divers Princes of Italy , who being not able to resist , and believing themselves abandoned by the French , yielded to what they thought their advantage , or rather to necessity . And so besides the places in Mount Argentaro in Tuscany , and Porto Longone in Elba , the Forte Fuentes , built in the entrance of the Valtelline , and Garrisons put into Final , Monaco , Piombino , Correggio , and other little Fiefs of the Empire , the Net was spread , and the design made publick . These things going thus on , one by one , some by Negotiation , and some through the conjuncture of time , ( although they awakened jealous thoughts in some , yet they seemed not of importance to disturb the Peace ; under which , some not remembring , that one ring is not a Chain , yet a Chain is formed of many rings , ) thought themselves secure , and others happy . But by the death of Henry the Fourth , France falling into a long minority , the Spanish Ministers judged the conjuncture fit to reap their advantages with Counsel , and with Arms. And to say truth , the occasion in Italy seemed favourable ; because the French , as hath been said , being excluded , and now fallen under the government of a Child , and of a Woman , and Ministers divided in their private Interests , the Country was believed so low in courage and strength , that if at any time strangers in the attempt to subdue it , had gotten great company , both People and the Princes themselves , would now place their safety and greatest glory in yielding their obedience . Some by a pecuniary Interest were already dependent upon Spain ; others by blood , and others by pretensions . The Popes taken up in the care of Holy things , or distracted in the concerns of their own Family , side always with the strongest , so that the safety and protection of Italy was now committed to the Venetians alone . Nevertheless it was judged , that they also would prefer Peace before all things , either from the experience of the hazards , and events of former Wars , or because Monarchies being subject to various changes and accidents , it was believed , that time might produce such successes , from which they thought their Republick , as standing upon a more sure foundation , exempt , and free . But in this general Quiet and Peace of Europe , there wanting rather pretexts than minds to disturb Italy , it was abundantly supplied by the death of Francis Gonzague Duke of Mantua , hapned in the flower of his Age , about the last of October 1612.

He left for posterity to his House Mary ; yet at Nurse , to the Estate , two Brothers , Ferdinand a Cardinal , and Vincenzo ; and to Italy , a sad series of Calamities and Troubles . By his Marriage with Margarite , Daughter of Charles Emanuel , Duke of Savoy , it was generally believed , that the Peace of Italy would have been established , composing thereby the pretensions of those two Houses upon Monferrat . They had their ancient Original from the very root of the succession to that State from the Paleologhi and the Gonzagui , and after many litigious proceedings , Charles the Fifth , Emperour , as Soveraign of the Fief , did rather foment than extinguish them , by a certain sentence whereby the possession was adjudged to Mantua , leaving undecided to Savoy the right of certain donations of Lands ; and of the Dowry of Blanche Wife to Charles the First Duke of Savoy ; which though it exceeded not 80 Thousand Crowns , yet with the interest of a long time , came near to a Million . In the Marriage aforesaid , it was studiously endeavoured to ballance all Interests , besides the Dowry in Money and Jewels , the Father ceding in favour of the Daughter and her Posterity the Revenues of Monferrat ; and there was a line to be drawn , which was to distinguish the confines , much intangled with Piedmont , upon some lands whereof those of the house of Gonzaghi having a right , they renounce it and made a mutual exchange of several places for common convenience and advantage . But the affections of Princes being not to be bound by those Bonds , which among private men pass for Sacred , designs ceased not , nor were pretensions extinguished .

For the Line , they could never find a point where to begin it , but that of the life of Duke Francis being cut , they fell back into discord , and the confusion of their former Interests . Margarhite , called the Infanta , according to the custom of Spain , in regard of her Mother , Daughter of the Catholick King , Philip the Second , who in her young days was left a Widow in the house of Mantua , retained very lively affections for that of her Father ; whose maxims and sence were so deep imprinted in her , that she played that part which was most pleasing to the Savoyards .

Carlo Emanuel was then Duke of Savoy , who it may be said , had with much virtue adorned , and as much ambition embroiled two Ages . He was born in the 61. year of the last , and with him at a birth , Generosity , Courage , and the desire of Dominion . In the 19. year of his Age he succeeded his Father in the Estate , important for its scituation , plentiful by its Fertility , and for its extent considerable , but not proportionable to his mind .

Being invironed with two so great powers as are France and Spain , he could not but know how difficult it would be to make conquests , and as impossible to keep them . Nevertheless the divisions of France having opened a way to the surprisal of the Marquisat of Salusses , and other great attempts , he espoused , together with the Daughter of Philip the Second , a partiality to that Crown , and the Maxims thereof . But the assistance of his Father-in-Law ( who had no mind to make him greater towards the Confines of the Milanese ) not being such as hope and desire had suggested to him , he at last concluding a Treaty with Henry the Fourth , more to the advantage of the Spaniards than himself , adheres to France , and enters with Henry as a sharer in these designs , which that great King upon firm foundations had laid against the Austrian Monarchy . His treacherous and sudden death discharges him , leaving Carlo in the grief of his lost hopes , and in fear of the revenge of Spain ; which nevertheless having pacified by sundry means , and the Hostage of one of his Sons , since he had not been able to make his profit with the great Ones , he now purposes to disturb his Neighbours of more moderate power . The death of his Son-in-Law gives him the occasion , and on the first notice of it he dispatches , as his Ambassadour to Mantua , the Count Francisco Marteningo , and afterwards the Marquess of Lucerna to console his Daughter . She then publishes her self with child , to suspend a while the succession of Ferdinand the Cardinal , and leave the Government fluctuant and uncertain . Soon after the Prince Vittorio Amadeo her elder Brother arrives , and at the same time the Count Guido di San Giorgio , a Subject by birth of Monferrat , but by discontent with his own Prince , becomes a near Confident of Carlos , was by frequent goings and comings , driving on a secret Treaty at Milan .

The Mine at last was sprung , for Vittorio perswades his Sister , with her little Daughter , to return home to her Father , or at least to retire to a neutral place , as might be Milan ; and if in consideration of the Child not yet born , her going out of those Countries were not approved , he insinuated that there was Monferrat , where she might remain with more decency . That it was not fit that a young Princess should remain amidst the said memorials of her past contentments , and under the eye of the Cardinal her Kinsman , as young in years , as jealous of the Succession . That the Daughter ought to go with the Mother : not to separate the affections of Nature , and to bring her up with that tenderness , which is proper for a mothers care . Under such appearances was hid a more secret mystery ; for as the Fief of Mantua did not admit to the Succession any but Males , so by that of Monferrat , Women were not excluded . In Mary therefore was considered the security of that important State , and therefore Carlo desired to have her in his power : For grant , that Practice and Right have excluded Women , when any of the Male-line is remaining of a degree never so remote ; nevertheless if to his own right , he should have been able to joyn that of the Princess , there was no doubt , but it would have much strengthened the cause . Ferdinand , that well knew , what those instances meant , defended himself with several conveniencies and excuses . That the Dutchess could not stir from Mantua , while she carried in her womb the pawn of the felicity of that State . That it was not the custom , that the Princes of Gonzagui should be born in any other place , than where they command . That his Niece much less ought not to be removed out of that house , where possibly Fortune designed her Heir and Mistress . If the object of the Palace of Mantua were a place too sad and mournful , others were not wanting , and particularly that of Goito , wherein to divertisement was joyned safety and convenience .

But Carlo's to the Governour of Milan , who was John Mendoza , Marquess of Inoiosa , intimates , that that business was to be managed by the Authority of Spain . Was it fit that the Child , Niece of the King , should be brought up by him , who was Vncle by the Fathers side , and Competitor of the Command ; where should this tender Pledge of the Fortune of Italy be better placed , than under the Royal care of him , who is the Arbiter of it ? That the Child did possess in her self the right of Monferrat , so near and important to the Milanese . If she should carry it in Dowry to some troublesom and unquiet Prince ; and if , wanting Issue male , as from the Complection of the Princess was prognosticated , the Line of Nivers , now naturalized in France , should come to succeed , what would become of the Affairs of Italy , and the Authority , which without controul the King at present enjoys there ?

These reasons , which , as the Report went , were quickned with rich gifts , moved the Governour to speed the Prince of Ascoli with a great number of Souldiers , to demand with a high hand both the Child and the Mother ; Ferdinand was astonished betwixt wrath and danger . It seemed a great matter , that the only Issue of that Family should be ravished from its Fathers house . But on the other side , to the power and will of so great a Monarch there was no resisting . Nevertheless taking counsel suitable to his fear , and pretexts from the present state of Affairs , he answers . That his Niece , being Niece to the Emperour , and Queen of France , he was not to dispose of her alone . That he declined contest with his sister-in-law about the Guardianship , and referred it to him who is Soveraign of the State . With this Ascoli and the Prince of Piedmont depart , either respecting the name of so great Princes , or rather because unexpectedly meeting with a reluctancy in Ferdinand , things were not yet concerted and adjusted to proceed further .

Ferdinand presently gives notice to the Imperial Court , and into France , of this jealous accident , in which it appeared , that the security , liberty , and dignity of all was concerned , because betwixt power and violence , there being no mean , but that of reason ; if to will and interest right should give place , nothing in the World would any longer be safe , and unviolated . Matthias of Austria was now Emperour of Germany , and his Counsels , as the World thought , governed by Melchior Cardinal Gleselius , and supposed , that as the Prince , so the Minister was little inclined to the Spaniards : And therefore naturally abhorring all that was pleasing to them , and holding it for a Maxime , that the shadow of their Authority in Italy would more serve to oppress the Emperours , than augment it , the Emperour decrees , That the Tutelage of the Niece did belong to Ferdinand , absolving him from any defect of age , required by the Common Law ; neither did the Queen Regent of France differ from that Judgment , and being angry at the proceedings of the Savoyards , declares her self to maintain the Decree , giving them to understand , that she would not endure , that the Niece should be removed from her Fathers house and State , not without some kind of threatning Carlo to resent it , whensoever he should imploy Art or Force about it ; and with this it was believed , that the designs of Savoy were for the present suppressed , and the thoughts of Spain laid aside .

All this was seconded by the Council of the Venetians , who having after the death of Francisco sent to Mantua , under the pretext of private Affairs , Ferrante da Rossi their General of the Artillery , a great Confident of the Gonzagui , had charged him to observe the tendency of things , and the accidents thereupon . By this means Ferdinand held a strict communication of all things with the Republick , and still incouraged him not to bend under the weight and troubles of the new Government , to maintain his Interest , and the Decorum of it , and to lose no time to make use of his dexterity among the great Princes , and to procure with all his power the good offices , and assistances of his Allies , so to be able to make a counterbalance to Spain . The Senate also pressed seriously Pope Paul V. the Emperour , and the Crowns , to awaken necessary reflections for the diverting these calamities and imbroilments , which mature Judgment foresaw to be at hand . But Margaret's supposed being with Child being now vanished with time , Ferdinand above his Purple assumes the Title and Power of Duke , and at the same time the Prince of Piedmont appears at Goito to carry away his Sister , and his Niece , now the pretext of her being with Child ceased . There was there besides , Isabella Dutchess of Modena , only Sister of Margaret . And here by artifices and fears Ferdinand was overcome to be content , that , his Sister-in-law retiring her self to Modena , her Daughter should be carried thither also , with solemn promises , that she should be sent back to Mantua , whensoever Margaret should have a mind to return into Piedmont .

But this Concert was no sooner divulged , but France in particular ascribing the Dukes consent to his own inexperience , and the corruption of his Ministers , it was remonstrated to him , to how many hazards he exposed that only Child , and to how many cross interests he abandoned the Family . What was the Duke of Modena able to do against the artifices of Carlos , or the commanding power of Inoiosa ? He should have considered , that by the Succession , if God should inrich her with Posterity , there would remain betwixt Mary and her Sons divided hopes , pretensions , and designs . Ferdinand , acknowledging all to be truth , afflicted himself ; but taken at his word , knew not how to recal it , when Caesar Duke of Modena , considering the weight of the Charge trusted to him , that drew along with it the satisfaction of the Crowns , flips the knot , and refuses it . Vittorio departs then with his Sister only , and with them a sharp thorn was pulled out of the heart and eyes of Ferdinand . But they were no sooner arrived at Milan , but the Governour dispatches a Courrier to Mantua , to require the Princess to be delivered to her mother ; who bringing nothing but the accustomed answers , he sends thither the Captain of his Guard , Diego Leiva , and to Modena , Camillo de la Torre , that by both the Dukes might be admonished , the one to deliver the Child , and the other to receive her . He of Mantua denying his power to disobey the Emperours Decree , sends the Bishop of Diocaesarea to Milan , to make his excuse for it , with order also to go on to Vercelli to console Margaret , who lived there ; and withal to insinuate the project of marriage , which had been so often formerly spoken of , as the only means to confirm in the blood of Margaret the posterity , quench the pretensions about Monferrat , and unite affections .

But as Ferdinand , taking counsel from his interest and the present Conjuncture , had not shewed himself averse ; so Carlos would never come to any resolution , sometimes alledging discontents , sometimes requiring satisfactions , and at last declaring , that he would not again , in favour of a second marriage , quit the right of Monferrat . He had his thoughts rather bent to espouse his own interest with the Fortune of a War ; and for that purpose , superadding new pretensions to the old , he requires the restitution of the Dowry of Margaret , with the Jewels , not only which she had brought , but those that had been given her in honour of the marriage : all which by the Cardinal Duke , were resolutely denied .

Amidst these Negotiations , Carlos was transported to higher thoughts . And calling to Council at Vercelli his Sons and Ministers , proposes his disgusts at the Duke of Mantuoe , the reasons he had to resent them , together with the opportunity of greatning himself ; and layes forth the appearances , which flattered him to believe , that what with Negotiations , and his Army , all things would succeed well . Martinengo , Voghera , and Lucerna , his chief Counsellors , judging the designs to be greater than could be effected , with great passions shew their dissent : and the first with so much freedom disswades , that he incurred displeasure and distrust ; but Verua , and St. Giorgio , of which the one , having an Estate in Monferrat , desired to bring it under the Dominion of his own Prince and Master , and the other being made odious to his natural Prince , affected to change him , seconded the inclinations of the Duke . His custom was for the most part to consult within himself , and to resolve according to the dictate of his own prudence ; which being the infallible Counsellor of the wisest Princes , was very often in him defiled with the suggestions of ambition , always hazardous , seldom happy . Having some Troops on foot , part being the remains of the League with France , part a Guard against the Jealousie of Spain , he saw before his eyes a State exposed , and disarmed , which the Duke of Mantua could not defend , but with bewailing and complaints . He believed , that the Princes of Italy either stupified , or slumbering in a profound Peace , would hardly be brought to awaken : That the Venetians , more considerate than the rest , beside his entertaining of a mutual confidence with them , were wont rather to tolerate things done , then approve the designs . The Emperour had nothing remaining in Italy but the name , and for the two Crowns , he feared them not , the one having a minor King , and the other the Kingly Power afar off . The Milanese , disarmed and unprovided , was governed by Mendoza , his Confident , and little capable in matters of intricacy to play a wise part , or resist force . It was true , that in Spain the Favourite , Duke of Lerma , shewed himself averse to him ; but he chiefly reflected , lest the fear that he should draw a French Army into Italy , in the distaste of it , would render the natural weight of those Counsels more grievous .

In conclusion , he deliberates to give a blow at unawares ; because , when he should have put himself in possession of some part of Monferrat , before the minds of those that were remote would be stirred , and the Forces of those that were near could unite , and Princes in the darkness of the general Jealousies could discern their proper Interests , some time would spend ; during which he hoped to find his security , and advantages ; they well understanding him to be as active and nimble in Negotiations and Treaties , as they knew him wise and couragious in Arms.