An introduction to the history of the principal kingdoms and states of Europe by Samuel Puffendorf ... ; made English from the original.

An Introduction to the History of the Chief Kingdoms and States now in EUROPE .

CHAP. I. Of the Ancient Monarchies , and more especially of the Roman , out of whose Ruines arose several Kingdoms and States .

§ . 1. NO Man of Common Sense , imagines , that at the first Propagation of Mankind , The most ancient State of Mankind . there were such Governments as are among us at this time . But in those Times each Father , without being Subject to any Superiour Power , governed his Wife , Children and Servants , as a Sovereign . Nay , it seems very probable to me , that even to the time of the Deluge , there was no Magistracy , or any Civil Constitution ; but that the Government was lodged only in each Father of his Family . For it is scarce to be imagined , that such abominable Disorders could have been introduced , where the Power of Magistrates and Laws was exercised : And it is observable , that after once the Rules of Government were Constituted , we do not find that Mankind in general did run into the same Enormities , of which God Almighty was obliged to purge the World by an Universal Punishment , though the Root of the Evil was remaining as well after as before the Deluge . It seems also , that for a considerable time after the Deluge this Paternal Government continued in the World .

§ . 2. The Original of Civil Societies . But the reason why the Fathers of Families left this Separate way of living , and joyned in a Mutual civil Society , seems to be , That among the Neighbouring Families , sometimes Quarrels used to arise , which being often decided by Force , drew along with them very great Inconveniencies , to prevent which , it was thought necessary for the Preservation of Peace and Quietness among Neighbours , to referr the Decision of such Matters to the Judgment of some of the wisest and most Considerable among them . After the increase of Mankind , it was also easily to be observed , how difficult it would prove for a Single Family to defend it self against the Joint Conspiracy of a malicious Party , to Oppose which , the Neighbours living so near , as to be able to assist one another in case of Necessity , did enter into a Society Mutually to defend themselves against their Common Enemies . That they might do this with the better Success , the Administration of the whole Society was committed to him , who appeared most Considerable for his Wisdom and Valour . It is also very Probable that such as by Common Consent sought out new Habitations , chose a Leader , who both in their Journey , and in the Country , which they possessed themselves of , had the chief Direction of Affairs : And this office of a Judge , Head , or Leader by degrees degenerated into that sort of Government , which Aristotle calls Heroical , which is nothing else but a Democracy under the Authority of one of the Citizens , who has a Power rather to Advise than to Command the rest . And this seems to be the most ancient Form of Republicks : for the Fathers and Rulers of their Families could not so soon forget their Liberty , as not to Reserve to themselves a share in the Government by which their Consent was required to be given unto all Matters , which were to be decreed in the Name of the whole Society .

§ . 3. At what time the first States were constituted . But at what time precisely these Societies were first Instituted , and which of them is to be esteemed the most Ancient , is not easie to be determined ; for though commonly the Assyrian Empire is taken for the first Monarchy , yet it is not from hence to be concluded , that the same was the first civil Society ; since it is evident that this Empire acquired its Greatness by swallowing up Lesser States . And those Wars which the Assyrian Kings waged against other States , do abundantly testifie , that besides the Assyrian , there were also other Civil Societies even at that time in the World . And here is to be observed , that as all human Affairs do not come immediately to Perfection , so were the first Institutions of Civil Society very simple and imperfect , The first States were very small and imperfect . till by degrees the Supreme Civil Power , together with such Laws and Constitutions as were requisite for the maintaining of a Civil Society , were instituted . The first Common-wealths also were very small , and their Territories of a very little extent , so that it was easie for the Citizens to assemble , either to Consult or to Defend themselves against a Foreign Power . It is evident out of History , that the deeper you search into the most ancient Times , the more Separate small Common-wealths you will meet withal , out of the Union of which great Empires in Process of time did arise , some of those Uniting themselves by common Consent , others being Subdued by the more Powerfull .

§ . 4. Among these great Empires , The Assyrian Empire . the Assyrian is commonly reckoned the most Ancient , the reason of which may probably be , That those Parts were Sooner , and More Inhabited than other places , which being later possessed had Fewer Inhabitants . Wherefore the Assyrians might without much difficulty overcome one small Common-wealth after another , and by Subduing some , make way for an Entire Conquest over the rest , that had not then learned the advantage of a joint Power and Confederacy . The vast Armies with which Ninus and Semiramis ( the first Founders of this Monarchy ) did over-power far distant Nations , make the common Chronologies very doubtfull : But to settle this is not to our present purpose . But by what means the Kings of this vast Empire did bridle the Conquered Nations , ought to be remembred , Two of them being most remarkable . By what means this Empire was maintained . The First was , That they intending to imprint an Extraordinary Character of their Persons into the Minds of the People , they always kept themselves very close in their Palaces , and being seldom to be seen by any but their nearest Servants , they never gave Answer to their Subjects Petitions but by them . Whereby they possessed the People that they were much above the Common Rank of Mankind . The Second was , That every Year they used to draw a certain number of Souldiers out of each Province , and these being Quartered in and about the place of their Residence , and Commanded by such a one as was thought most faithfull , these Forces struck Terrour both into the Subjects at Home and the neighbouring Nations Abroad . This Army was again Disbanded every year , and another drawn out of the Provinces , that the General by the Authority he had with the Soldiers , might not be in a condition to Invade the Empire . It s Fall . The Ruin of this Empire under Sardanapalus , is not so much to be ascribed to his Effeminacy , as to this , That the Kings allowed too much Power to the Governours of Provinces of so vast an extent . These grew at last too Powerfull for the Kings themselves , who being lull'd asleep by Voluptuousness ( the effects of Peace and Plenty ) did not , as they used to do formerly , by great Actions endeavour to maintain their Authority among the People . Out of the Ruins of the Assyrian Empire two new Kingdoms were erected ; Arbactes taking upon himself the Sovereignty of Media , where he was Governour , as the Lord Lieutenant of Babylon did the same in his Province , both which were afterwards re-united under the Persian Monarchy .

§ . 5. Cyrus the first Founder of the Persian Empire , The Persian Empire . did , besides what formerly belonged to Media , and Babylon , also Conquer a great part of the Lesser Asia . This Prince , besides other remarkable Constitutions , did wisely institute this , as a most necessary one to preserve the Peace of his Empire ; By what means it was maintained . That in all Provinces , where he sent his Lords Lieutenants , he Constituted Governours of the Fortresses chosen out of the Commons , who being not under the Jurisdiction of the Lords Lieutenants , had their dependence immediately on the King . These therefore living in continual Jealousies , served as a Bridle to one another . The Lords Lieutenants , without the Assistance of the Governours of the Fortresses , were not in a Capacity to Mutiny against the King , who not only Observed all their Actions , but also frequently Informed the King concerning their Behaviour . From the Governours of the Fortresses nothing was to be feared , because , being of Mean Condition and a very Limited Power , they were not capable of making any great Factions , or drawing any considerable Party after them . Cambyses annex'd Egypt to the Persian Empire . But whenever the Kings of Persia did undertake to extend their Conquests further , it always proved fruitless . Cambyses did in vain Attack the Aethiopians , as Darius Hydaspes did the Scythians . And Xerxes was shamefully beaten by the Greeks : But the following Kings , Artaxerxes Longimanus , Darius Nothus , and Artaxerxes Mnemon , did Manage their Affairs with more Wisdom against the Greeks , whom they did not Attack ; but leaving them at rest , they quickly saw Intestine Wars kindled amongst themselves ; wherein they so well knew how to play their Game , that by always affording Assistance to the weaker Side , they rather protracted than finished these intestine Wars , till the Greeks , quite tired and exhausted , were obliged to accept of such Conditions of Peace as were projected by the Persians , whereby each City being declared free and independent of one another , Greece was disabled hereafter to undertake any thing of Moment . Notwithstanding Macedon , an obscure Nation of Greece , proved the Ruin of the Persian Monarchy , through a defect of Policy in their Kings , in not early Opposing the Growing Power of Philip , by raising Powerfull Enemies in Greece , against him and his Son Alexander , ( which for great Summs of Money they might easily have done , ) and thus have cut out so much Work for these two Warlike Princes at Home , that they could not have had leisure so much as to have entred on the thoughts of Invading Persia : In the same manner , as formerly the Persians had obliged Agesilaus quickly to return into Greece . But being over secure in their own Strength , and despising Others , they drew upon themselves their own Destruction .

§ . 6. Greece . Greece was in ancient times divided into a great many petty Common-wealths , every one of these being governed by its own Laws . Among those in Process of time , Athens grew most famous , whose Citizens for Ingenuity , Eloquence , and the knowledge of Arts and Science , surpassed all the rest ; their Glory increased exceedingly after they had signalized themselves so bravely against the Persians . After this , by adding of the Harbour of Pyreum to their City , they made it very commodious for Shipping , and acquired such vast Riches , that by their naval Strength they subdued the Isles of the Aegean Sea and the Coasts of the Lesser Asia . But being puffed up with their good Success , they drew upon themselves the hatred of their Allies : and after they once attempted to be sole Masters of Greece , the Peloponnesians , headed by the Spartans ( who especially envied the Athenians ) united together to chastise the insolence of Athens . Yet the Athenians behaved themselves so bravely , that the War was carried on for a considerable time with near equal Success , till at last being vanquished in a Battle in Sicily , they also lost their whole Fleet on the Coast of Thrace ; then the Lacedaemonians becoming Masters of Athens constituted thirty Governours , who tyrannized most cruelly over such of the Citizens of Athens as survived the Storming of their City ; yet Thrasibulus having expelled the same with the assistance of some of the banished Athenians , restored the City to its former Liberty . After this , though the Athenians did recover themselves a little , yet were they never able to arrive at the former Grandeur of their Common-wealth , and being afterwards too forward in making head against Philip , they were severely chastised by him . It was therefore the immoderate Ambition of the Athenians , and their desire of conquering more than they were able to defend , which occasioned their Ruin . For the number of the Citizens of Athens did not exceed ten thousand , and they rarely receiving others as Citizens among them , great Cities and Provinces , could not be kept in obedience by such a number , and with one unfortunate Blow their whole power was struck down without Recovery . And considering that such Cities are better fitted for their own Defence , than making Conquests upon others , it is more adviseable for them to mind the advantage of their own Trade , than to inter-meddle too much in foreign Affairs , and rather to keep safe their own Walls , than to invade their Neighbours . Sparta . Next to Athens , Lacedaemon was famous in Greece , whose Citizens by the constitutions and rigorous Discipline introduced by Lycurgus , seem'd to be most fitly qualified for warlike Atchievements . This City having not any powerfull Neighbour to contest withall , was strong enough to defend its Liberty against the Neighbouring Common-wealths . And the Spartans , as long as they , according to their Laws and Institution , despised Riches , had no great occasion to invade others : But as soon as they began to aim at higher matters , they found by experience , that it was a quite different case to conquer Kingdoms , than to defend their own City . For having had the good Fortune of subduing Athens , they fell into the same folly which had been the Ruin of the Athenians , and were not only for conquering the Asiatick Sea Coasts , but also under the Conduct of Agesilaus they invaded Persia . But it was easie for the King of Persia to find out means to chastise their Insolence , who caused a diversion to be made by the Greeks , that envied the Success of the Spartans , so that they were quickly obliged to recall Agesilaus to defend themselves at home . Not long after their Fleet being beaten by Conon , Epaminondas defeated their Army by Land in the Battle of Leuctra , whereby they were so weakened , that they were scarce able to defend their own Walls . Next to these two Cities , Thebes was for a while famous , through the Valour and Wisdom of Epaminondas , who so well knew how to head his Countrymen , that they humbled the Spartans , and as long as he lived , were the most flourishing State of Greece . But after his death , this City returned to its former State , and making head against Philip , was severely chastised by hir● , and quite destroyed by his Son Alexander .

§ . 7. Macedon . Macedon was before the times of Philip an inconsiderable Kingdom , and so exposed to the Incursions of its Neighbours , that it was scarce able to defend it self , this Nation being then esteemed the most despicable of Greece . But by the Military Virtue of two Kings , this Nation did show it self so considerable , that it conquered a great part of the World . The circumstances wherein the neighbouring Nations of Macedon were at that time , The Politick Conduct and great Actions of Philip. and the good Conduct of Philip , whereby he so settled the Kingdom at home , that it quickly became the chiefest in all Greece , gave the first opportunity to lay the Foundation of this Monarchy . For on one side it had for its Neighbours the Thracians , Triballians , and Illyrians , very barbarous Nations ; these were easily kept in awe by a neighbouring , wise and brave King . On the other side , was Greece and its Cities , which , though they were much fallen from their ancient Glory , yet , were all together still too hard for the Macedonians . Against those he made use of this Artifice , That by setting them together by the Ears among themselves , he so weakened them with intestine Wars , that they were afterwards not able to hold out long against him . And because Philip used only to attack one of those Cities at a time , and the rest were not forward enough unanimously to hinder his growing Greatness , he was upon a sudden , before they were aware of it grown too strong and potent for them all . Philip seemed particularly endowed with great qualifications for this enterprize : For besides the Vivacity of his Spirit , he was push'd on by an extraordinary Ambition to make himself famous by great Actions . What real Vertues were wanting in him , he endeavoured to supply with pretending to the same ; wherefore tho' he did nothing without a fair Pretence , yet did he never stick at any thing , provided he could obtain his ends , and was never sparing in Promises or Oaths , if he thought he could thereby deceive such as he intended to overcome . He was an absolute Master of his Passions , and knew how to keep his Counsels secret , how to set Friends together by the Ears , and by pretending Friendships to both Parties , to deceive them by vain hopes . He being also very Eloquent , knew how to insinuate himself with every body ; and as for Money , he made no other use of it , than to advance his designs . He was a most experienced Warriour , and had made the Macedonians so excellent Souldiers , that the Macedonian Phalanx , first invented by him , was terrible , even to the Romans . And , because he was always at the Head of his Armies , continually exercised his Souldiers , and punctually paid them , there were no better Souldiers , in his days , than the Macedonians . Being arrived to this Greatness , so that he was chosen by the common consent of Greece their General against the Persians ; and being busie in making preparations for this expedition , he was barbarously murthered , leaving his Son Alexander the glory of pursuing it .

§ . 8. Alexander the Great . There is scarce in all History to be read of an Expedition more famous than that of Alexander the Great , wherein he , with thirty odd thousand Men , conquer'd so vast and potent Kingdoms , and by his victorious Arms extended his Empire from the Hellespont to the Indies . If we enquire into the causes of so uncommon and happy progresses ; it is undeniable that , besides the Providence of God Almighty , who has put bounds to all Kingdoms upon Earth , the incomparable Valour of Alexander himself had a great share in the same ; who having an Army of chosen Men , fell upon his Enemy's Army with such swiftness and vigour , that it was impossible for any new levied Forces , though never so numerous , to resist him . Yet Darius committed a grand mistake , when he offered Battel to Alexander ; it being evident , that the Persians never were equal to the Greeks in Pitch'd Battels . Besides this , the Persians having lived for a considerable time in Peace , had few experienced Souldiers among them ; so that the greater the number was of such undisciplined Souldiers , the sooner were they brought into disorder at the time of Battel . Darius was ignorant of that great Art of protracting the War , and by posting himself advantageously , and cutting off the Provisions from his Enemies , to take off the edge of fierce Alexander . And because he had neglected to give him a diversion at home with the assistance of the Greeks , who envied his Greatness , no other Event could reasonably be expected , than what afterwards followed .

§ . 9. He dies young . But the untimely Death of Alexander robb'd both him and his young Children of the fruits of his Victories . For these , being young , lost not only their Father's Kingdom , but also the fatal Wars carried on after his Death betwixt his Generals , brought the conquer'd Nations under great Calamities , who else would have been in hopes to have changed their Kings for a much better and greater Prince . But that it seem'd was next to an impossibility , that these so suddenly conquered Countries should so soon be united in one Kingdom . Since a firm Union betwixt so many Nations could not be established without a singular Prudence of their supream Head , and a considerable time . We find also that a sudden Greatness is rarely lasting , there being no less ability required to maintain , than to acquire a thing of this nature . The Conquests therefore of Alexander being of so vast an extent , that the small number of his Macedonians was by no means sufficient to keep them in awe ; and to make those Provinces dependent on the Macedonian Empire , there was no other way to maintain such vast Conquests , than to treat the conquered Nations in the same manner with his native Subjects , and not to oblige them to recede from their ancient Laws and Customs , or to turn Macedonians , but rather for him to turn Persian , that the conquered might not be sensible of any other change , but what they found in the Person of their King . Alexander understood this very well ; wherefore he not only used himself to the Persian Customs and Habit , but also married the deceased King's Daughter , and had a Persian Guard about him . Those Writers , who reprehend Alexander's Conduct in this matter , only discover their own indiscretion . But to settle a right understanding betwixt the Conquerours and Conquered , did require a considerable time ; to effect which , Alexander seemed to be the fittest Man in the World , as being endowed with a more than ordinary Valour , Magnanimity , Liberality and Authority . If he had left a Son behind him not unworthy of so great a Father , the Persian Throne would questionless have been entailed upon his Family .

§ . 10. Great Troubles after the Death of Alexander . The Death of Alexander the Great was the occasion of long and bloody Wars ; For the Army , puff'd up with the Glory of its great Actions , esteemed no body worthy of the supream Command ; And the Generals refusing to obey one another , were grown too potent to live as private persons . 'T is time Arideus had the name of King ; but this poor Man wanted both Authority and Power to bridle the Ambition of so many proud and great Men. Wherefore all spurr'd on by their hopes , some of obtaining the whole Empire , some of getting a considerable share , they waged a most bloody and long War among themselves , till their number was reduced to a few , from a great many , who first pretended to the Empire . Five of them took upon themselves the Title of Kings , and the Sovereign Dominion of their Provinces , viz. Cassander , Lysimachus , Antigonus , Seleucus and Ptolemy . But only the three last transmitted their Kingdoms to their Families . There were then no more than three Kingdoms remaining in the power of the Macedonians ; viz. That of Syria , Egypt and Macedon ; That part of the Persian Empire which lay Easterly beyond the River Euphrates , being become a vast new Kingdom under the name of the Parthian Empire . The above-mentioned three Kingdoms were afterwards swallowed up by the Romans , The Fall of the Macedonian Empire . and the Kingdom of Macedon was the first , as lying nearest unto Italy . For the Romans , after having subdued all Italy , began to extend their Conquests beyond the Seas ; and perceiving that Philip , an active King , bid fair for the Conquest of all Greece ; they did not think it advisable to let him grow more Powerfull , he being so near to them , that in time he might easily prove troublesome to Italy . They entring therefore into a League with the same Cities of Greece , which were Attack'd by Philip , under that pretence made War upon Philip ; and having driven him back into Macedon , restored Liberty to all Greece . By which means the Romans at the same time divided their Strength , and gain'd their Affections ; at length they Conquer'd Perseus , and with him the Kingdom of Macedon : Then they turn'd their Arms against Syria , and took from Antiochus the Great , all that part of Asia which extends as far as Mount Taurus . And though this Kingdom did hold out for a while after , yet being miserably torn to pieces by the Dissentions , which were risen in the Royal Family , it Surrendred it self to Tigranes , King of Armenia . But he being Conquered by Pompey , the Whole was made a Province of the Roman Empire . Egypt at last could not escape the Hands of the Romans , after the Emperour Augustus had defeated Cleopatra and her Galant Mark Antony .

§ 11. Before we come to Rome , Carthage . we must say something of Carthage . This City having long contested with Rome for the Superiority , so that the Roman Government did not think it self well secured , as long as this City was in Being . This City , though it was rather fitted for Trade than War ; yet having acquired vast Riches by its Traffick , and being vastly encreased in Power and Inhabitants , forced not only the next adjacent Countries in Africa to pay them Tribute , but also sent vast Armies into Sicily , Sardinia and Spain . This occasioned the Wars betwixt them and the Romans ; the two First they maintain'd with extraordinary Resolution and Valour , but in the Third they were brought to utter Destruction . If they had avoided to meddle with the Roman Affairs , they might in all probability have been able for a great while to defend their Liberty . Ambition therefore was the chief Cause of their Ruin , since the Constitution of their Government was such , as being Adapted for Trade , did not require any great Possessions , except a few Lands for the use of their Citizens , and some Sea-Ports in Spain and Sicily , for conveniency of Commerce and Shipping . But the Conquests of large Countries were more hurtfull than profitable to them . For those Generals who Commanded their Armies abroad , proved at last dangerous to them , thinking it below themselves after so much Glory and vast Riches obtained , to be put in the same Rank with their Fellow Citizens . The Inhabitants besides , of this City , were not so well fitted for Land-service ; so that they being obliged to fill up their Armies with Mercenary Souldiers , collected out of several Nations , these were a vast and certain Charge to them , the hopes of the Benefit remaining uncertain . And besides this , their Faith was very inconstant , and the Conquered places could scarce be trusted to those , whose Faith might easily be bought by Money . After their first War with the Romans , they Experienced almost to their utter Ruin , how dangerous it is to wage War altogether with Foreign and Mercenary Souldiers . And therefore they could not possibly hold out against the Romans , who fought with a much greater Constancy for their Native Country , than these Foreign Mercenaries did for their Pay . 'T was a Capital Errour in the Carthaginians , that they did not take care in time , so to Establish their Power at Sea , that they needed not to have feared any thing from the Romans that way : But after they had once let the Romans become Masters at Sea , they could not but expect them one time or another at their City-gates . At the time when Hannibal had such prodigious Success against the Romans , it proved also a fatal Neglect in them , that they did not timely send fresh Supplies to Re-inforce him , so that he might have prosecuted the War to the Destruction of Rome . For after they had once given leisure to the Romans , to recollect themselves , they , conscious of their former danger , never rested till they had rased Carthage to the ground .

§ . 12. Rome a Warlike City . It is worth the while to trace the Common-wealth of Rome back to its Original , because none ever yet Equall'd it in Power and Greatness , and because young Students are first Entred and best Read in the Roman History . This City was perfectly made for War , from whence the first had her Rise , and afterwards her Fall . Its first Inhabitants were a sorry Rabble of Indigent People , the very Dregs of Italy , being ignorant of what belonged to Commerce , and not expert in any Handy-craft's Trade . For the carrying on of the first , Rome was not Commodiously Situated ; and the Latter was at that time unknown in Italy . That small parcel of Ground which at first they had possess'd themselves of , was not sufficient to maintain a considerable Number of People ; nor was there any vacant Ground in the Neighbourhood , which could be Tilled for their use . If therefore they would not always remain Beggars , nothing was left them but their Swords , wherewith to cut out their Fortune . And truly Rome was nothing else but a Den of Wolves , and its Inhabitants , like Wolves , always thirsting after their Neighbour's Goods and Blood , living by continual Robberies . It was then necessary for a City , under these Circumstances , to keep up a constant Stock of Valiant Citizens . To effect this the better , Bywhat means Rome became so populous . Romulus commanded , that no Child should be kill'd , except such as were very Deformed ; which barbarous Custom was also then very common among the Grecians . Besides this , he ordered that all Slaves at Rome , together with their Liberty , should have the Privilege of the City , from whom afterwards descended great Families , their Posterity being ambitious by great Deeds , to Efface the Memory of their base Original . But above all , one thing did mightily contribute towards the Increase of Rome , that Romulus did not suffer the Men to be put to the Sword , in such places , as were taken by force by the Romans , nor would let them be sold for Slaves ; but receiving them into Rome , granted them the same Privileges with the rest of the Citizens . The Roman Writers give this for one reason , why Athens and Sparta could not so long maintain their Conquests , as Rome did ; since they seldom Naturalized Strangers ; whereas Romulus frequently used to receive the same as Citizens of Rome in the Evening , with whom he had fought in the Morning . For War cannot be carried on without a good Stock of Men ; nor can Conquests be maintain'd without a considerable Number of Valiant Souldiers , upon whose Faith the Government can rely in case of an Attack . But that the Conquered places might not be left destitute of Inhabitants , and Rome might not be fill'd up with too much Rabble , they used only to Transplant the best and richest Men of the Conquered places to Rome , filling up their places with the poorest of the Roman Citizens ; who setling a continual good Correspondence betwixt the Conquered and the Romans , served also for a Garrison in these places . By these means the most Valiant and Richest Inhabitants of the Neighbouring Countries were drawn to Rome , and the poorest among the Romans obtained thereby , in those places , large Possessions . But although Necessity gave an Edge to the Roman Valour , 't was not that alone that made them so War-like a People ; for the Courage of their Kings , who instructed them in Military Affairs , and hardned them to Dangers , had a great share in it ; though , the thing rightly considered , it is not always adviseable , to lay the Foundation of a State upon Military Constitutions ; since the Changes of War are uncertain , and then it is not for the Quiet of any State that Martial Tempers should prevail too much in it . Wherefore Peaceable times did never agree with the Romans ; and as soon as they were freed from the Danger of Foreign Enemies , they sheath'd their Swords in each other's Bowels .

§ . 13. There were also other things worth our Observation , Several other Military Institutions . which did greatly advance the Military Affairs of Rome . One of the chiefest was , That their King Servius Tullius had ordered , that only the most able and wealthy Citizens should do Service as Souldiers , and Equip themselves either with light Arms or compleat Armour , according to their Ability : And , whereas formerly every body , without distinction , was obliged to serve the Publick in the Wars at his own Charge ; the poorer sort afterwards were never made use of , but upon Extraordinary Occasions . And though Riches do not make a Man the more Valiant , yet was it but reasonable , since every body was obliged to serve without Pay , that those , who were scarce able to maintain themselves , should be spared as much as could be : But besides this , their Wealth was a Pledge of their Fidelity . For he that has nothing to lose but his Life , carries all along with him , and has no such strict Obligation to face Death ; besides , that he may easily be brought to desert his own Party , if he meets with a prospect of a better fortune among the Enemies . On the contrary , a wealthy Man fights with more Zeal for the Publick Interest , because in defending That , he secures his own , and is not likely to betray his Trust ; For if he deserts , he leaves his Possessions behind him , with uncertain hopes of a recompence of his Treachery from the Enemy . And , though this Custom grew out of fashion under the Emperours , yet , in lieu of that , they always kept part of their Arrears behind , to assure themselves of their Fidelity ; and these were never paid , till they were dismiss'd . It is also remarkable , that , though the Romans have been often Signally beaten in the Field , yet did they never despair or accept of any disadvantageous Conditions of Peace , except what they did with Porsenae , and the Gauls call'd the Terrour ; to the first they were fain to give Hostages , upon condition , that they should not make any Iron-work , except what was requisite for Tilling the Ground . Of which shamefull Peace , the Roman Historians have cautiously avoided to speak in their Writings . And the Gauls were within an Inch of having put a period to the very Being of Rome , if they had not been bought off with Money , to Raise the Siege of the Capitol , reduced to the utmost extremity by Famine . For what is related , that Camillus coming up just at the time of the weighing out of the Gold , and drove the Gauls from the Capitol , some look upon as a fabulous Relation . Upon all other occasions they have always born their publick Misfortunes with an extraordinary Constancy . For , notwithstanding that Hannibal in the second Punick War had reduced them to the last Extremity , yet was not a word of Peace mentioned at Rome . And when their Generals by Claudius and Numantia had agreed upon shamefull Conditions with the Enemies , they chose rather to deliver up the Generals to the Enemies , than Ratifie the Treaty . They used also commonly to have but a small regard , and rarely to redeem such as were made Prisoners among them , to teach thereby the Roman Souldiers , to expect no deliverance but from their own Swords . As this Custom did oblige the Souldiers to fight till the last , so did their Constancy stand them in great stead among other Nations . For he that shows himself once fearfull of his Enemy , must expect to be Attackt by him , as often as opportunity presents it self .

§ . 14. Of the Religion of the Romans . It is also worth the while to touch a little upon the Religion of the Ancient Romans , which , though it was derived from the Greeks , yet the Romans knew much better how to Accommodate it to the advantage of their State . It was therefore from the very beginning a constant Rule at Rome , not to begin any publick Affairs of moment , without good Indications or Presages : Because that the Event of things is commonly supposed to happen according to the Approbation of God . And therefore such as think themselves assured of the good Will of God , undertake and effect things with a greater Courage . These Indications were commonly taken from Birds . Which being a very ancient Superstition , which took its Rise from an Opinion of the Heathens , that the Gods having their place of Residence immediately above the Region of the Air , did make use of the Creatures of the next adjoyning Element for their Interpreters . These Indications also were thought particularly usefull , because the same were at hand at all times , and the Motions and Chirpings of the Birds might be variously interpreted according to the Exigency of the Times , and the Affairs of the State . The cunning Augrs or Sooth-sayers made use of these Predictions from the flight of Birds , to inspire the ignorant Multitude either with Hopes or Despair , Valour or Fear , according as it seem'd most suitable and convenient to the publick Affairs . Wherefore Cato the Elder , who was an Augur himself , did not stick to say ; He did wonder , how one Augur , meeting another , could forbear laughing , because their Science was built upon so slight a foundation . What the Romans did call Religion , was chiefly instituted for the benefit of the State , that thereby they might the better be able to Rule the Minds of the People , according to the Conveniencies and Exigencies of the State ; quite in another manner , than the Christian Religion does , which is instituted for the benefit of the Soul , and the future Happiness of Mankind . Wherefore there were no certain Heads or Articles of Religion among the Romans , whence the People might be instructed concerning the Being and Will of God , or how they might regulate their Passions and Actions so as to please God : But all was involved in outward Ceremonies ; viz. What sort of Sacrifices was to be made , what Holy-days and Publick Games were to be kept , &c. For the rest , the Priests were unconcerned , as to what the People did believe or not believe of Divine Matters ; or , whether after this Life the Vertuous and Wicked were to expect Rewards according to their several deserts ; or , whether the Souls perish'd together with the Bodies . For we see , that the Heathens have spoken very dubiously concerning these Matters , and the wisest of them have taken these things for Inventions wherewith to keep the People in awe . But in their Ceremonies they were most exact , performing the same with great pomp and outward show , and rarely admitting of the least alteration to be made in the same . All this was instituted to please the humour of the Multitude , which is most moved with those things , which dazle the Eyes , and strike strongly on the Senses . Wherefore their Temples and Sacrifices were not only extraordinary Magnificent , but the Priests also were chosen out of the most Noble Families , which served to increase the Reverence of the People , that commonly judges of the Value of things , according to the quality of such as are employed about them . Yet besides this , there was another Mystery in it . For , because they made use of their Religion only as an Instrument of State , to make the People pliable to the Intentions of their Rulers ; it was by all means necessary , that such Priests were made use of , as understood the Interest of the State , and did themselves also sit at the Helm of the Common-wealth . On the contrary , if the meaner sort had been employed as Priests , they might easily , out of Ambition , have , with the assistance of the People , raised a Faction contrary to the Governours , since the Multitude commonly depends on those of whose Sanctity they have an Opinion ; or else out of ignorance of the publick Affairs and the present Exigencies they might chance to influence the People in another manner , than was consistent with the present state of Affairs . They prevented also by this way , that the Priests could not form a particular Estate in the Common-wealth , and thereby either cause a mischievous Division , or else strive to get the Power into their own hands .

§ . 15. The Expulsion of their Kings , and the Erection of a new Form of Government . After Rome had been governed for Two hundred forty and two Years by Kings , another Form of Government was introduced , Sextus Tarquin having at that time ravish'd Lucretia . Whether Junius Brutus had sufficient reason , upon this account , to expell the King , may very well admit of Dispute . For on one side the Fact was most abominable , and of such a nature , that a brave Man would rather venture at any thing , than bear such an affront . And there are a great many Examples , that Princes , who , to satisfie their brutish Lusts , have Violated the Chastity of their Subject's Wives and Daughters , and thereby lost both their Lives and Crowns . But on the other hand , it is to be considered , that a Fact , though never so Criminal , committed by a Son , without the Knowledge and Consent of his Father , ought not to be prejudicial to the Father and Family ; much less could it be a pretence to depose a King from a Throne , which he lawfully possessed ; Especially , since to take Vengeance of Criminals does belong only to the King , and not the Subjects . And Brutus and Collatinus would have had reason to complain , after the King had denied them just satisfaction for the Fact committed by his Son , or if he had in any ways approved of the same . But it is commonly observed , that in Revolutions things are seldom carried according to the New form of the Rules of Justice . And as there is commonly some injustice committed at the first Settlement of a new Form of Government ; so Ambition and Envy , covered with Pretences of the Faults and Male-Administration of the Prince , are the true Motives of Dethroning the same . But not to insist further upon this , it is certain that Kingly Government could not be durable at Rome ; For such States as are comprehended in one great City are more fit for an Aristocratical or Democratical Form of Government ; whereas a Monarchy is fittest to be erected in Kingdoms , where the Subjects are dispersed in a considerable Tract and Extent of Land . The true Reason of this is , That Mankind in general , politically considered , is like wild unruly Creatures , ready upon all occasions to shake off the Bridle of Civil Obedience , as often as Matters do not suit with its humours . Besides , this Man cannot be kept in Obedience without the assistance of Men. From whence it may rationally be concluded , why a King , who Commands only over one great populous City , is immediately in danger of losing all , as soon as his Subjects are disgusted at him , or another can insinuate himself into their favour , except he is fortified with a strong Guard of Foreigners , and a considerable Fort ; though these Remedies are very odious , and oftentimes very uncertain . For when in such a Government the Prince comes to be odious , the Hatred is quickly communicated to all his Subjects , as living close together , and having consequently an opportunity of uniting themselves easily against him . But where the Subjects of a Prince live at a distance from one another , it is easie for him to keep so many of them inclined to his side , as are sufficient to suppress the mutinous Party . Wherefore also they are not so much to be feared , as being not able to meet so soon , and to unite themselves in one Body . But it is more especially very dangerous to Command over Subjects living in one place , of a fiery Temper , and exercised in Arms. For Common sense tells us , that he who will controul another , ought to have more force than him . In the mean while , this is most certain , that this Alteration of the Government mainly contributed towards the Encrease of Rome ; it being not credible , that under the Monarchical Government it could have arrived to that Greatness ; partly , because the Kings would have been obliged for their own security to suppress , in some measure , the Martial Spirit of their Citizens ; partly , because the Negligence or Unskilfulness of some Kings must needs have proved disadvantageous to the Common-wealth .

§ . 16. Above all , Reasons of the fall of the Roman Greatness . it is worth our Consideration , by what means the Roman Empire , which extended it self over so considerable a part of the World , was destroyed , and became a prey to the Northern Nations , after it had been broken by its own Intestine Troubles . The Causes of which we will enquire into from their first beginning . The People of Rome then being naturally of a fierce and martial Spirit , and enclosed together within the Walls of one City , their Kings had no way left to secure their Obedience , but by gaining their Affections with the gentleness and moderation of their Government , since they had not sufficient Power to balance the Forces of so vast a City . Wherefore the six first Kings kept the People in Obedience , rather by their good Inclinations than Fear . But as soon as Tarquin the Proud began to oppress the People with new Impositions , whereby he had so alienated the Hearts of his Subjects from him ; it was easie for Brutus , under pretext of the Fact committed upon Lucretia , to stir up the discontented People , and to shut the City-gates against the King . But as all sudden Changes of Government , The Defects of the Roman Common-wealth . that are carried on before things have been maturely considered , and all Emergencies provided against , are commonly accompanied with great Defects : So also was this at Rome , where some things were admitted , and others left undone ; not so much because they conduced to the advantage and safety of the State , but because the present Juncture of Affairs would not suffer them to be otherwise . There were also many Over-sights committed in the beginning , which left a Gap open for future Evils and Troubles . It seems to be evident , that Brutus and his Associates , after they had expell'd Tarquin , did intend to introduce an Aristocratical Form of Government : For it is scarce credible that they , being Noble-men , with the peril of their Lives should have expelled Tarquin on purpose to subject themselves to the Government of the Common people ; but because no Wise man is willing to exchange his present condition with another , without hopes of amending the same : Therefore the chief Authors of this Revolution were obliged , not only to render the Kingly Government odious to the People , but also by Mildness and Concessions to make the People in love with the New Government . For if the Common people had not been made sensible of the benefit they received from the Government of the Nobility , they might easily have opened the Gates again to Tarquin . Wherefore Valerius Papicola did strive to please the People , especially in letting down the Rods or Fasces ( the Ensigns of Authority ) before them , and allowing Appeals to the People , as a tacit Confession that the Supreme Power of Rome did belong to them . It was by all means requisite , if the Noble-men did intend to maintain the newly acquired Authority , to have a particular care of these two things . First , To take heed that they did not exasperate the Common people with their Pride ; And , Secondly , To find Means to maintain the poorer sort , that they might not be forced to seek for Remedies against their Poverty and Debts by disturbing the Publick . But neither of them were sufficiently regarded by the Nobility . There being at that time no written Laws at Rome , and the Nobility being in possession of all publick Offices , Justice was oftentimes administred according to Favour and Affection , the poorer sort being often , though unjustly , oppressed by the more Powerfull . And because the Citizens were obliged to serve in the Wars at their own Charge at that time , when little was to be got , they were thereby miserably exhausted ; so that they had no other remedy left them but to borrow Money from the Richer sort . These used such as were not able to satisfie their Creditors in so barbarous a manner , by Imprisoning , laying of them in Chains , and other Cruelties , that the Commons , quite put into despair , unanimously retired out of the City ; neither could they be persuaded to return , before the Senate had agreed to constitute Magistrates , called Tribunes of the People , who were to protect the Commons against the Power of the Nobility .

§ . 17. Two distinct Bodies in Rome . This was the Original and Cause of the Division of the Romans into two Factions ; viz. One of the Nobility , and the Other two Parties of the Common people : The continual Jealousies of which did afterwards minister perpetual fewel for Civil Dissentions . It seem'd at first sight but equitable and of no great consequence , that the Commons might have for their Heads some , who could upon all occasions protect them against the Nobility : But in this the Nobles did commit a grand Errour , that they allowed to the Common people , which made the major part of the City , a protection independent of the Senate ; making thereby the Body of the Common-wealth as it were double-headed . Factious Tribunes . For the Tribunes , spurr'd on by Ambition , and the Hatred , which is common in the Plebeians against the Nobility , were not satisfied with affording their Protection to the People against the Nobility ; but also were always endeavouring to be equal in Power , nay even to surpass the Senate in Authority . And first by their continual Contests they obtained a Privilege for the Commons to intermarry with the Nobles ; Afterwards they forced also the Nobility to consent that one of the Consuls should be chosen out of the Commonalty . They took upon themselves the Power of a Negative Voice , so as that no Decree of the Senate could pass into a Law without their consent , nay and even without the consent of the Senate to make Laws , and to exercise the other Acts of Sovereign Authority . The Senate , 't is true , to divert and employ the People , continually engaged them in one War or another , that they might not have leisure to contrive any thing against the Government . This , though it did very well for a while , and the Power and Territories of Rome were mightily thereby encreased , yet did arise from thence some other inconveniencies , which did not a little contribute towards the indisposition of the State . For whereas the conquered Lands ought to have been given to the poorer sort of the people , whereby the City would have been freed from a great many needy Citizens ; the Nobles , under pretence of Farming the same , took them into their own possession ; and what with these Revenues , and the great Booty which fell in the Wars almost all to their share , as being Commanders in Chief , the Riches of the Nobles encreased prodigiously ; whereas a great many of the Plebeians had scarce wherewithall to maintain themselves . The Commonalty being for these Reasons extreamly dissatisfied with the Senate , there were not wanting some of the Nobility , and others , of an ambitious Spirit , who having taken distaste at some Transactions of the Senate , did , under pretence of maintaining the Liberties of the People , make a considerable Party among them , though , in effect , their chief aim was , with the assistance of the Plebeians , to carry on their ambitious designs . Those being by force opposed by the Senate , it came quickly to a Civil War , and they sheath'd their Swords in each other's Bowels .

§ . 18. In the mean time , Citizens too powerfull . partly by the vast Increase of the Roman Empire , partly by Inadvertency of the Senate , another Evil had taken root ; viz. That vast and rich Provinces , together with great Armies , were committed to the Government of some of the Roman Citizens , and that for several years . From which , as it created in them an aversion to a private life , so it gave an opportunity to have whole Armies at their Devotion . It is not adviseable for any State whatsoever to let any of its Citizens mount to that degree of Power . For he that has a potent Army at his Devotion , will scarce be able to resist the temptation , but will be apt to attempt to make himself Sovereign . It is evident that the Ambition and great Power of Marius , Sulla , Pompey and Caesar did spur them on , by Intestine Wars , to suppress the Liberty of their native Country ; and after Rome was quite broken by them , to introduce an alteration in its Government . There was scarce any remedy left against this Evil , after the Citizens had once laid aside the respect due to the Senate , and the Souldiers had tasted the Sweets of the Booty got by Civil Commotions . Wherefore this Common-wealth at the very time when it was arrived to the pitch of its Greatness , it return'd again to a Monarchy , but not of the best kind , where the Army exercised Sovereign Authority . The Constitution of the Roman Monarchy . Augustus was the first Founder of this Monarchy , which he by his wife and long Reign , seem'd to have establish'd pretty well : And truly this new introduc'd form of Government , did for a while promise very fair , since Augustus assum'd only the Title of Prince , and maintaining the Senate and the rest of the great Officers in their Stations , took upon himself no more than the administration of Military Affairs . But in effect , this Monarchy was not founded so much upon the consent of the Senate and People , as upon the Power of the Souldiery , by whose assistance it was introduc'd and maintain'd . And because the ancient Nobility could not brook to be commanded by one single person , and was always for recovering its former Liberty , the Emperours left no Stone unturn'd either to diminish , or quite to extinguish the Splendour of the ancient Nobility ; so that within the space of 200 Years , very few were left , in whose places new Favourites of the Emperours were created , who were willing to submit themselves to their Commands .

§ . 19. But this Monarchy being founded upon the Souldiery , The Roman Monarchy could not be of a long continuance . could not be of a long continuance ; for as soon as the Souldiers had once learn'd this Secret , that they being the Supporters of the Monarchy , could dispose of the Empire at pleasure , and that the Senate and People were now empty Names ; the Emperours were not only oblig'd with double Pay and great Presents to purchase their Favour ; but they also began to kill such Emperours as were not pleasing to them , and to fill up their room with such as could obtain their Favour . And because one Army did claim the same Prerogative as well as the other , not only the Pretorian Bands , but also other Armies , which were on the Frontiers , undertook to do the same . Hence came nothing but Misery and Confusion in the Roman Empire , the Life of each Emperour depending on the Will of the covetous and unruly Souldiers , so that no Emperour was assur'd to leave the Empire to his Posterity . Oftentimes the bravest Princes were murther'd , and in their room others set up of the meanest Rank and Capacity . Oftentimes two or more were declared Emperours , who used to make horrid slaughters among the Citizens in deciding their Titles to the Empire . And this was the reason why not only very few of the ancient Emperours died a natural death , but also the Power of this vast Empire , was diminish'd to that degree by these intestine Wars , that it did appear no otherwise than a Body without its Nerves . Constantine the Great did also hasten its fall , when he transferr'd the Imperial Court from Rome to Constantinople , and sent away the Veterane Legions which guarded the Frontiers of the Empire , along the Danube and the Rhine , to the Easterly Parts , whereby the Western Provinces , destitute of their Guards , became a prey to other Nations . Besides this , Theodosius divided the Empire betwixt his two Sons , giving to Arcadius the Eastern , to Honorius the Western parts ; which division did not a little contribute towards the destruction of the Empire . The Western Parts became a prey to the Germans and Goths , who about that time came in prodigious numbers , to change their poor Habitations for the pleasant and rich Provinces of the Romans . England the Romans left of their own accord , as being not in a capacity to defend it against the Scots , and having occasion for their Troops to defend France . Spain fell to the share of the West-Goths . The Vandals settled themselves in Africa . The Goths , Burgundians and Francks divided France betwixt them . Rhaetia and Noricum was conquer'd by the Suevians and Bavarians . A great part of Pannonia and Illyricum was possested by the Huns. The Goths settled a Kingdom in Italy ▪ and did not think Rome worthy to make it the place of Residence of the Gothick Kings .

§ . 20. Though the Western parts of the Roman Empire tell to the share of Foreign Nations , yet the Eastern Provinces , 〈…〉 who●e Capital City was Constanti●●le ▪ remain'd for a great many hundred years after ▪ 〈◊〉 ●his Eastern Empire was neither in Power nor Splendour to be compar'd to the Ancient Roman Empire . And Agathias the Vth. says , That whereas heretofore the Roman Forces consisted of 645000 Men , the same did amount in the times of Justinian scarce to 150000. 'T is true , under the Reign of this Justinian , the Empire began to recover something of its former Power , Belisarius having destroyed the Empire of the Vandals in Africa , as Narses did that of the Goths in Italy , because these Nations were grown Effeminate , and overcome with the deliciousness of a plentifull Country : Yet did it again decrease by degrees , the neighbouring Nations taking away one piece after another , the Emperours were partly in fault themselves , some of them being sunk in pleasures , and grown quite effeminate ; others in continual Divisions , destroying each other . One part was subdu'd by the Bulgarians . The Saracens conquer'd Syria , Palestine , Egypt , Cilicia , and other neighbouring Countries , and ra●aging the rest , besieged Constantinople ; which City was once taken by Count Baldwin of Flanders , but his Forces were obliged to quit it not long after . The City also of Trebisond , with the neighbouring Countries withdrawing from the Obedience of the rest of the Empire , set up an Emperour of their own choosing . At last the Turks entirely subdu'd this Empire , who did not only conquer the Saracens , but also afterwards swallow'd up the Remnants of the Eastern Empire of Constantinople ; Greece having before withdrawn it self from the Obedience of the Emperours , was govern'd by its own petty Princes ; making , thereby , the Conquest of the Turks over them the easier ; till , at last , the City of Constantinople being taken by Storm by the Turks , Anno 1453. was afterwards made the place of Residence of the Ottoman Emperours .

CHAP. II. Of the Kingdom of Spain .

SPain was in ancient Times divided into a great many States , The ancient State of Spain . independent of one another , which was at that time the condition of most other Countries of Europe . But , by reason of this Division , this otherwise War-like Nation was very instrumental to its being conquer'd by foreign Enemies . To this may be added , That the Spaniards did want good and understanding Generals , under whose Conduct they might easily have resisted the Power of their Enemies . For not to mention how the Celts pass'd out of Gaul into the next adjacent parts of Spain , who being mixt with the Iberians ▪ were from thenceforward call'd Celtiberians ; neither how the Rhodians built Roses , the Citizens of Zante Saguntum , the Phoenicians Cadiz , Malaga and other Cities , the Carthaginians , above the rest , immediately after the first Punick War with the Romans , began to conquer a great part of Spain . Wherefore in the second Punick War the Romans did at first send their Forces into Spain , where they fought so long with the Carthaginians , till at last , Scipio , afterwards sir-nam'd the African , made a great part of it a Roman Province ; the other parts were subdu'd by degrees , till Augustus at last entirely subduing the Cantabrians , who live next to the Pyrenean Mountains , joined all Spain to the Roman Empire , under whose Protection it was peaceably govern'd for a considerable time , except that the Spaniards now and then were drawn in to take a part in the Civil Wars among the Romans .

§ . 2. West Goths conquer Spain . But the Western parts of the Roman Empire declining , the Vandals , Suevians , Alani and Silingi made an inrode into Spain , 410. and after many bloody Battels fought , divided it betwixt them ; which Conquests nevertheless they did not enjoy long ; for the Vandals passing over into Africa , the Alani were quite routed by the Suevians , who having also subdu'd the Silingi , were in a fair way of becoming Masters of all Spain , if they had not been prevented by the West Goths ; who , after they had under the Conduct of their King Alarick , ransack'd Italy and Rome it self , settled themselves upon the Borders lying betwixt Spain and France , making Narbonne the Seat of their Kings , who at first had under their Jurisdiction Catalonia and Languedock , but soon after extended their Power over other Provinces of Spain . Among these was particularly renown'd their King Euric , who took from the Romans all what was left them in Spain , except Gallicia , which remained under the Power of the Suevians : He also conquer'd several Provinces in France . But Clodoveus , King of the Francks , having defeated the Son of Euric , retook from the Goths , what they had conquer'd before in France , under the Reign of Agila and Athanagildas ; the Romans , 554. who had before rescu'd Africa from the hands of the Vandals , retook a part of Spain , but were chac'd from thence , for the most part , under the Reign of Levigildis , who also did quite root out the Suevians in Gallicia . Under the Reign of his Son Recaredus , 572. the Empire of the Goths was arriv'd to its highest pitch of greatness , 586. as comprehending not only some neighbouring Provinces of France , and a part of Mauritania , but also all Spain , except a small part possess'd as yet by the Romans ; from whence they were quite chased afterwards by King Suinthila . King Wamba subdu'd the Gothick Rebels in France with great success , 646. and beat the Fleet of the Saracens , 677. who much infested those Seas ; but under Witiza the Gothick Empire begun to decline from their ancient Valour , The Ruine of the Gothick Empire in Spain . the Goths being much degenerated , till under the Reign of Roderic it was quite extinguish'd . The King himself contributed greatly to its sudden downfall ; for having ravish'd a certain Court Lady call'd Cava , the Daughter of Count Julian , Governour of that part of Mauritania which belong'd to the Goths , as also over that tract of Spain which lies near the Streights of Gibral●ar ; he to revenge himself for this affront , first stirr'd up a great many of the King's Subjects against him , and afterwards persuaded the Saracens to pass out of Africa over into Spain . These to try their Fortune , first pass'd over with a small number , but quickly encreasing by continual Supplies of Men sent from home , they vanquish'd such Forces as Roderic sent in hast against them . After this Success the treacherous Julian understanding that Roderic did intend to bring into the Field the whole Forces of his Kingdom , 713. which consisted of 100000 Men , brought more Saracens over into Spain , who being joined with the rest , did in a most memorable Battle intirely rout this Multitude of unexercised and ill arm'd Souldiers , who were surpriz'd to see one of their own party call'd Oppas , with the Troops under his Command , went over to the Enemy , and fell into their Flanck , together with the Forces of Julian . Thus all was given over for lost , and in this one Battle fell the whole Power and Splendour of the Goths , which had been famous in Spain for three hundred Years , Roderic himself being kill'd in the flight , 714. so that the Goths being without a Head were quite dispers'd , The Saracens c●nquer Spain . and all the great Cities , partly by force of Arms , partly upon Articles , fell into the Hands of the Enemy within the space of three Years . Only Asturia , Biscay , a part of Gallicia and some Countries next adjacent to the Pyrenean Mountains remain'd under the Goths , rather , because the Enemies did not think it worth their while to drive them from these Mountainous places , than that the Goths trusted to their own Strength to defend themselves against them . Into these parts also retir'd such Christians as had escap'd the Sword of the Enemies . But all the rest of Spain was inhabited by the Saracens and Jews .

§ . 3. Kings in Oviedo . To free Spain from this Tyranny , was first undertaken by Pelagius , Pelagius . who ( as 't was said ) was descended from the Race of the Gothick Kings . This Man being chosen King , 726. did recollect the remaining Forces of this unfortunate Nation ; and having brought together an Army , obtained a signal Victory against the Moors ; and in the mean while that the Saracens were weakening their Strength in France , took from them the City of Leon , and several others . His Son Favila , Favila . who succeeded him , did nothing worth mentioning . But Alfonso the Catholick re-took several Places from the Moors , Alfonso I. and reigned till the Year 757. 737. Whose Son Favila also Valiantly defended his Kingdom , Favila . vanquishing the Moors in a great Battle . He was killed in the Year 768 : Aurelius . But his Successor Aurelius made a shamefull Peace with the Moors , by virtue of which he was obliged to give them a yearly Tribute of a certain Number of Virgins . He died in the Year 774. Silo. His Successor Silo did also nothing worth mentioning , and died in the Year 783. After him reigned Alfonso , Alfonsus I ▪ the Son of Favila , against whom Mauregatus taking up Arms , forced him out of the Kingdom ; who , to settle himself the better in the Empire , craved assistance from the Moors , promising them a yearly Tribute of 50 Noble Virgins , and as many others . He died in the Year 788. His Successor Veremundus did nothing Praise-worthy , Veremundus . except that he recalled Alfonso , Sir-named the Chaste ; who refusing to pay the Tribute of the Virgins to the Moors , 791. gave them several signal Defeats : But having no Children , he made an agreement with Charles the Great , that he should assist him in driving the Moors out of Spain ; in recompence of which , he was to be his Heir in the Kingdom of Spain . Charles therefore sent his Son Bernard with a Puissant Army into Spain , but the Spaniards not liking the agreement , as being not willing to be under the Command of the French , arose unanimously , and falling upon the French near Ronceval ; just as they were entring into Spain , entirely routed them ; in which Battle the famous Rowland was slain . Thus it is related by the Spanish Historians , but the French do not agree with them in the relation . Alfonso died in the Year 844 , whose Successor Ramirus most gloriously usher'd the Spanish Liberty . Ramirus , For the Moors demanding the Tribute according to the agreement made with Mauregatus , he defeated them in a great Battle , but could not take from them many of their strong Holds , being with-held partly by Intestine Commotions , partly by an Inrode the Normans made upon him . He died in the Year 851. After him succeeded his Son Ordonius , Ordonius I. who reigned with great applause ; he obtain'd a Victory over the Moors , and took some of their strong Holds . He died in the Year 862 , Alfonso III. whose Son and Successor Alfonso , Sirnamed the Great , fortunately overcame the Rebels at home , and the Moors abroad . But by laying too heavy Impositions upon the People , he drew the hatred of a great many upon himself , and was therefore robb'd of the Crown by his Son Garsias . Garsias . This King Valiantly attackt the Moors , 910. but died soon after . His Brother also was Victorious against the Moors ▪ 913. transferring the Seat of the Spanish Kings from Oviedo to Leon. The Origin of the Kingdoms of Navarre and Arragon . He died in the Year 923. But besides this Kingdom of Oviedo , there arose several other Governments in Spain . For Garsias Semenus erected a new Kingdom in Navarre ; and Aznar , Son of Eudo , Duke of Aquitain , having taken several Places from the Moors , took upon himself , with consent of the before-mentioned Garsias , the Title of Earl of Arragon . Lewis also , Son of Charles the Great , taking Barcelona , constituted a Governour there , whose Name was Bernard , a Frenchman , from whom descended the Earls of Barcelona . About the time also of the above-mentioned Kings there were several Earls or Governours of Old Castile , who acknowledged the foresaid Kings for their Soveraigns . These Earls being once suspected by King Ordonius , he call'd them together ; who appearing , were all kill'd by his Order . Wherefore the Old Castilians , under the Reign of his Son Favila , Favila II. a cruel Tyrant , with-drawing themselves from the Kingdom of Leon , chose two Governours , under the Name of Judges , who were to administer all Civil and Military Affairs . But this Form of Government did not last long among them .

§ . 4. Alfonso IV. After Favila Alphonso the IVth . obtained the Kingdom , under whose Reign Ferdinand Gonsalvo , Earl of Castile , perform'd great things both against the Moors , and Sanctius Abareus , and his Son Garsias , Kings of Navarre , whom he vanquish'd . But Alfonso himself being unfit to Govern the Kingdom , surrendred it to his Brother Ramirus ; Ramirus II. who , with the assistance of the before-mentioned Ferdinand , 931. beat the Moors in several Places . He died in the Year 950 , and was succeeded by his Son Ordonius , Ordonius III a Valiant Prince ; but did not Reign long , leaving the Kingdom to his Brother Sanctius Crassus . Sanctius . He was Banish'd by Ordonius , Sir-named the Wicked ; 955. but soon restored by the help of the Moors . It is said that by certain Articles made betwixt Sanctius and Ferdinand , Earl of Castile , 965. it was agreed , that Castile after that time should not be obliged to acknowledge any dependance on the Kings of Leon. Ramirus III. He was succeeded by Ramirus , who , 967. in his Minority , was under Womens tuition ; and when grown up , proved very useless to the Publick . For , under his Reign , partly by civil Commotions , partly by the In-roads made by the Moors , the Kingdom was considerably weakened , and in great danger of losing more , several Places being taken from the Christians . Veremund II. Under Veremund II. also , the Moors did considerable mischief in those Parts , 982. taking and plundering , besides a great many others , the City of Leon ; to which Misfortunes the civil Commotions did greatly contribute . But at last Veremund entring into a Confederacy with the King of Navarre , and Garsias , Earl of Castile , forced the Moors out of his Kingdom . Him succeeded his Son Alfonso V. Alfonso V. under whose Reign there were great Intestine Commotions in Castile , 999. whereby the Moors were encouraged to attack it with such vigour , that they over-threw Garsias , and took him Prisoner , whose Son Sanctius revenged himself afterwards upon the Moors . After this , great Dissentions being arisen among the Moors , their Empire was divided into several Parts , each Governour of its Province assuming the Name of King . Alfonso succeeded his Son Veremund III. Veremund III under whose Reign there happened a great Revolution in Spain . For Garsias , Earl of Castile , 1025. being upon the point of being married to the King's Sister at Leon , was there barbarously murthered by some of his Vassals . Castile therefore falling to Sanctius , King of Navarre , who had married the Sister of Garsias , he took upon him the Title of King of Castile . This Sanctius , Sir-named Major , also waged War against Veremund , Castile made a Kingdom . who had no Children , taking from him , by force of Arms , a considerable part of the Kingdom . Whereupon a Peace was concluded , whereby it was agreed , that Sanctius should keep what he had taken before , but that his Son Ferdinand should Marry Sanctia , the Sister of Veremund , she being Heiress to her Brother , and to succeed him in the Kingdom of Leon. In this manner was Leon , Navarre and Castile , Sanctius II. United in one House : But in the mean while that Sanctius Major was in the Field against the Moors , Major . a great Misfortune happened at Home . He had particularly recommended to the Care of his Queen a very fine Horse , which Garsias , her Eldest Son , had a mind to have , and would have obtained it from the Mother , if the Master of the Horse had not opposed it , telling them , that his Father would be greatly displeased at it . This denial wrought so upon the Son , that he accused his Mother of committing Adultery with the Master of the Horse . The Matter being examined , the King 's Natural Son , Ramirus , profered to justifie the Innocency of the Queen in a Duel with Garsias , and the King being uncertain what to do , a Priest did at last enforce the Confession of the Calumny cast upon the Queen from Garsias ; whereupon Garsias being declared incapable of succeeding his Father in Castile , which did belong to him by his Mother's side , and Ramirus obtained the Succession in the Kingdom of Arragon as a recompence of his Fidelity . This Sanctius Major died in the Year 1035.

§ . 5. Thus all the Provinces of Spain , The pernici●us Division of Spain . which were possess'd by the Christians , being joined in one House , it seem'd an easie matter to root out the Moors , divided among themselves , and to restore Spain to its former state , if the same had remained under one Head . But the division made by Sanctius Major occasion'd most bloody and pernicious Wars . This before-mentioned Sanctius had four Sons : To the Eldest Garsias , he left Navarre and Biscay ; to Ferdinand , Castile ; to Gonsalvo , Suprarbe and Ripagorsa ; and to Ramirus his Natural Son , Arragon , giving to each of them the Title of King . These being all ambitious to be equal in Power and Greatness to their Father , and thinking their Bounds too narrow , fell quickly together by the Ears . For whilest Garsias was gone in Pilgrimage to Rome , Ramirus endeavoured to make himself Master of Navarre ; but the other returning home , ●hased him out of Arragon . There arose also a War betwixt Ferdinand of Castile and his Brother-in-law Veremund ▪ King of Leon ; wherein the latter being slain in Battle , Ferdinand became Master of Leon , which did by Right of Succession belong to him . 1038. He also took from the Moors a great part of Portugal . After the Death of Gonsalvo , the Third Son of Sanctius Major , Ramirus made himself Master of his Territories , and endeavoured also to recover , by force of Arms , Arragon from the King of Navarre . 1045. Not long after Ferdinand of Castile , and Garsias of Navarre , waged War together about a certain Tract of Ground , 1053. wherein Garsias was slain in a Battle . By his Death Ramirus got an opportunity of recovering Arragon . Ferdinand , Sir-named the Great , died in the Year 1065 , dividing the Empire , to the great detriment of Spain , among his three Sons . The Eldest Sanctius had Castile , Alfonso , Leon , Garsias Gallicia , and a part of Portugal , with the Titles of Kings . Sanctius III. Sanctius waged War with Ramirus of Arragon , 1067. whom he slew in a Battle , but was beaten back again by Sanctius , Son of Ramirus , and the King of Navarre . Afterward having driven Alfonso out of his Territories , and taken Garsias Prisoner , he took possession of the Territories belonging to his Brothers , but was slain in the Siege of Camora , which City he endeavour'd to take from his Sister . Then Alfonso his Brother , Alfonso VI. who had hitherto dwelt with the Moorish King of Toledo , made himself Master of Castile and Leon. 1073. And took from the Moors , besides some other Places , the City of Toledo , which was in those days esteemed impregnable . 1085. But the Moors in Spain having received fresh Re-inforcements out of Africa , got new Courage , and falling upon the Christians , defeated them in two Battles , till Alfonso got an entire Victory over them , obliging the Moorish King of Corduba to pay him a yearly Tribute . Nevertheless he was afterwards again over-thrown in a Battle fought with the Moors , where he lost his only Son , Sanctius , whose Death he revenged soon after upon them . He died in the Year 1109. Vrraca his Daughter was Heiress to the Kingdom , she being Married to Alfonso King of Arragon ; Alfonso VII . Which Marriage , under pretence of too near a Consanguinity and Adultery committed by the Queen , was afterwards dissolved again . Alfonso VIII . But , because Alfonso would nevertheless keep Castile as the Dowry of the Queen , it caused great Intestine Wars and Divisions . For Alfonso VIII . Son of Vrraca by Raymond of Burgundy , her first Husband , who was come out of France to assist her Father in the Wars against the Moors , was proclaimed King of Castile , in the mean while that Alfonso of Arragon was busied in taking , besides some other Places , the City of Saragossa from the Moors . 1118. At last a Peace was concluded betwixt Arragon and Castile . 1122. Afterwards Alfonso of Castile made War against the Moors with great Success , taking from them divers Places of Note . But Alfonso of Arragon being slain in a Battle , 1134. fought with the Moors , and leaving no Children behind him , those of Navarre chose for their King Garsias , who was of the Race of their former Kings : But the Arragonians conferr'd the Crown upon Ramirus , Brother to the deceased King , who had been a Monk . Alfonso of Castile , in Opposition to both , pretending to have a Right to these Kingdoms , conquered a great part of them , causing himself , with consent of Pope Innocent II. who was supposed to do it in spite to the German Emperours , to be proclaimed Emperour of Spain . But this difference was also at last composed , it being agreed that Ramirus should give his only Daughter , together with the Kingdom , to Raymond Earl of Barcelona , by which means Catalonia and Arragon were United ; 1137. then Alfonso entring into a Confederacy with the Kings of Navarre and Arragon , Attack'd again the Moors , taking from them the City of Almeria , which in those days was a great Sea-port and Harbour for Privateers . Raymond took from the Moors Tortosa , Lerida , and other strong Holds . Alfonso died in the Year 1157.

§ . 6. Sanctius IV. The same Alfonso ( though Spain had suffered sufficiently by its being divided into so many Governments ) left to his Son Sanctius , Castile ; to Ferdinand , Leon and Gallicia . Sanctius , who did nothing , that is remarkable , except that he beat twice those of Navarre , died in the Year 1158 , Alfonso IX . leaving his Son Alfonso IX . a Child of four years of Age. During the time of his Minority , there were great Disturbances in Castile , occasioned partly by the Divisions among the Nobility , partly by the Wars with Ferdinando of Leon , and Sanctius of Navarre , who took several Places from the Castilians . But coming to his riper years , he did extricate himself , though not without great difficulty , out of those Troubles . In the War against the Moors , who always kept the Spanish Kings in Exercise , he suffered extreamly , so that he was obliged to make a Truce with them , because the Kings of Navarre and Leon at the same time fell upon him . At last there was a Confederacy made betwixt these Kings , with a certain agreement , how such Places should be disposed of as should be taken from the Moors . In the Year 1210 , a most Memorable Expedition was undertaken against the Moors , where presented themselves a great many Foreigners , who came to Signalize themselves ; but a great many of them being soon tired out , returned home . At that time was fought the famous Battle of Lasa , where 200000 Moors being slain , they lost all their Strength . In this Battle Sanctius King of Navarre , breaking first through a Chain which surrounded the Moorish Army , he afterwards bore a Chain with an Emerald in his Shield . In this War was taken from the Moors , besides other Places , the City of Calatrava . The King of Leon took Alcantara . Alfonso died in the Year 1214 , leaving behind him his Son Henry , Henry . whose Minority occasioned great disturbances in the Kingdom ; he died without Issue in the Year 1217. He had two Sisters , the Eldest Blanch was Married to Lewis VIII . Son of Philip Augustus , King of France : The second , Berengaria , was Married to Alfonso , King of Leon. The Crown , by Right of Succession , did belong to the Eldest , and her Heirs : But out of a hatred the States bore to Strangers , they conferr'd the Kingdom upon Ferdinand , Ferdinandus Sanctus . Sir-named the Holy , Son of Berengaria , who with all speed imaginable , possess'd himself of it , before he could be prevented by his Father , surmounting all the difficulties which were rais'd against him , partly by his Father , partly by some of the Nobility . It is related by some , That Blanch was not the eldest Sister , but that some of the Castilian Noblemen did dispute the right of Berengaria to the Crown , because the Pope had declar'd her marriage with Alfonso void , and their Children illegitimate , as being too near in Bloud . 1230. By the death of Alfonso , Leon and Castile were reunited under Ferdinand , at what time the Moors suffer'd extreamly in their Affairs . 1230. King James of Arragon took from them Majorca , in the Year 1232. Minorca in the Year 1234. Yvica in the Year 1238. The City and Kingdom of Valencia . Ferdinand took from them , besides other places , in the Year 1230 , Merida and Badajoz . In the Year 1236 , 1240. the City and Kingdom of Corduba : Murcia surrender'd it self to the protection of Castile . In the Year 1243 , 1248. Jaen , Sevile , and the greatest part of Andalusia . But whilst he was making Preparations to carry the War into Africa , he died in the Year 1252.

§ . 7. Alfonso X. The History of the next following Years is full of Troubles and Divisions . Alfonso , 't is true , was famous in foreign Countries for his Wisdom and great skill in Astronomy , so that it is reported of him , that he used to say , That if God would have advised with him at the time of the Creation of the World , the World should have been made more uniform ; yet he was unfortunate at home , and hated by his Subjects . The first occasion of which was , that he being desirous to fill his Treasury , which was exhausted , he caus'd the current Coin to be diminish'd , which enhanc'd the price of every thing , and whilst to prevent this , he set certain rates on all Commodities , 1256. which occasion'd a general scarcity of all things , the people not being willing to sell at his rates . He was by some of the Electors chosen Roman Emperour , but because his Children were then very young , and great Divisions arose among his Nobles , he delay'd for a great many Years to go thither , and to receive the Imperial Crown , till in the Year 1275 , a fancy took him all on a sudden , to go and take possession of the Empire , though Rudolf of Habsburgh was already got into the Imperial Throne . But his Journey was ended in Provence , he returning from thence home by the persuasion of the Pope , who afterwards excommunicated him , and obliged him also to renounce the Title of Emperour . After the death of Ferdinand , his eldest Son , Sanctius , the younger Brother , did aim at the Succession , tho Ferdinand had left Children behind him . This rais'd a Jealousie betwixt the Father and Son , who rose in open Rebellion against his Father , being assisted by the major part of the States , which Commotion however ceas'd with the death of Alfonso . 1284. Under the Reign of this King many Battels were fought against the Moors with various success . Sanctius V. In the Year also 1282 happened the Sicilian Vespers , The Sicilian Vespers . by which means Peter King of Arragon obtain'd the Kingdom of Sicily , he having before a pretence to it , as having married Constantia the Daughter of Manfred . Against this Sanctius the Son of Ferdinand , his elder Brother , rais'd several disturbances , which he overcame all by his Wisdom : he dyed in the Year 1295. During the time of the Minority of his Son Ferdinand IV. Ferdinand IV the Kingdom of Castile was overwhelm'd with trouble . After he came to Age , he undertook an Expedition against the Moors , taking from them Gibraltar , and died in the flower of his Age. 1312. Under the Reign of this King James King of Arragon was presented with the Kingdom of Sardinia , 1297. by the Pope , who pretended to have a right of disposing of it ; and those of Pisa being then in possession of the same , were afterwards beaten out by the Arragonians . The Minority also of Alfonso XI . Alfonso XI . was full of troubles . At that time the Moors had again received a great Reinforcement out of Africa , 1324. the Castilians nevertheless obtain'd a most signal Victory over them in the Year 1340 , in which Battel , 't is said 200000 were slain on the side of the Moors , and but only 25000 Spaniards . At that time Alzira was taken , and a Peace concluded with the King of Granada , under condition that he should be tributary to Castile . 1350. This King died in the Siege of Gibraltar , which he had lost before . His Son Pieter , sirnamed The Cruel , Peter the Cruel . reigned very tyrannically . He drew the hatred of most of his Subjects upon himself by parting from his Queen Blanch , whom he afterwards , tho Innocent , for the sake of a Concubine , caus'd to be murther'd . This occasion'd a Plot against him , which he suppress'd with a great deal of Bloudshed . In the mean while a War arose betwixt him and Pieter IV. King of Arragon , who assisted the Rebels in Castile , who had set up for their King , Henry the King's Brother , begotten on a Concubine call'd Eleonora Gusman : With him also join'd a great many French Voluntiers ; so that falling upon Pieter of Castile , 1366. he forc'd him to flee into Aquitain . But he having rais'd there a considerable Army , return'd into Spain , defeated Henry , and obliged him to flee into France , but did not desist from his Tyranny , whereby he quite lost the Affection of his Subjects : And Henry having gather'd another Army in France return'd into Castile ; where being assisted by the Castilians he vanquish'd Pieter , and in the flight kill'd him with his own Hands . 1369.

§ . 8. Henry II. Out of the Race of this Henry II. sirnam'd The Bastard , sprang afterwards Princes who prov'd very mischievous to Spain . Henry himself did at first labour under great difficulties , the neighbouring Nations attacking him every where , yet he surmounted them , and at last made Peace with them all . But the Favour of his Nobles he bought with Money . He died in the year 1379. John II. His Son John endeavour'd to obtain the Crown of Portugal , of Ferdinand its King , whose Daughter he had married . But the Portugueses , out of a hatred against the Castilians , set up for their King , John natural Son to Pieter King of Portugal , who maintained himself against the Castilians , routing them near to Aliunbaret ; which Victory the Portugueses mightily boast of in their Histories . Castile was at that time in great danger , the English siding with the Portugueses , under the Duke of Lancaster , who having married Constantia , the Daughter of Pieter sirnamed The Cruel , pretended to the right of that Crown , bearing also the Title and Arms : But the business was at last compos'd , by marrying the Daughter of the English Duke to the Prince of Castile ; after which also a Peace was concluded with Portugal . 1390. John died by a fall from his Horse . His Son Henry III. Henry III. was a sickly Prince , under whose Minority great Divisions arose in the Kingdom . During the time of his Reign he did nothing remarkable , except that he restor'd the Revenues which the Nobles had alienated from the Crown . He died in the Year 1407 , John II. leaving behind him John II. a Child of two Months old . The tuition of this Prince was , besides his Mother , committed to Ferdinand his Uncle , to whom the States did offer the Kingdom , which he generously refusing to accept of , he obtain'd afterwards the Crown of Arragon . This King being under the tuition of his Mother grown very Effeminate , only addicted to Voluptuousness , having no Genius nor inclination for publick Business , committed the whole management to his Favourite Alvarez de Luna , an ambitious Man , which occasion'd great Jealousies in his Nobles against him . This King taking his Favourite's part against the Nobility , an open War ensu'd betwixt them , the Rebels being headed by his own Son , and the City of Toledo declar'd against the King . At last the King being tir'd with the many Inconveniencies , cut this Favourite's Head off ; 145● . but died himself in the Year next following . Under the Reign of this King a War broke out betwixt the Spaniards and those of Granada , wherein the first signaliz'd themselves to their advantage . In the Year 1420 King Alfonso of Arragon was adopted by Joan Queen of Naples ; but a difference arising betwixt Joan and Alfonso , she declar'd the said Adoption void and null , receiving in his stead Lewis Duke of Anjou ; which afterwards occasion'd bloody Wars betwixt France and Spain : Yet Alfonso at last kept the upper hand , making himself Master of Naples , 1442. and leaving the same to his natural Son Ferdinand . In the Kingdom of Castile succeeded John his Son Henry IV. Henry IV. the scandal to the Spanish Nation . He being incapable of begetting Children , to take away this suspicion , hired one Bertrand Corva , who for this service was made Earl of Ledesma , to lie with the Queen , who having brought forth a Daughter call'd Joan , Henry caus'd her to be proclaim'd Heiress to the Crown . What confirm'd this the more was , that the Queen afterwards had another Bastard begotten by another person . To remove this shame , and to exclude Joan from the succession of the Crown , the Nobles of Spain enter'd into an Association ; and putting the Image of Henry upon a Scaffold , they there formally accus'd him , and afterwards , having taken off his Ornaments , threw it from the Scaffold , at the same time proclaiming Alfonso , Brother of Henry , their King . From hence arose most pernicious intestine Wars which ended in bloudy Battels . During these troubles Alfonso died : About the same time , 1468. Ferdinand Son of John II. King of Arragon , whom his Father had declar'd King of Sicily , props'd a Marriage with Isabella , Henry's Sister , to whom the rebellious Castilians had offer'd the Crown , and forc'd Henry to confirm the right of Isabella to the Crown ; whereupon the Nuptials were celebrated , 1469. but privately : Yet would Henry , by making this Concession void , have afterwards set up again the Title of Joan , whom he had promis'd in marriage to Charles Duke of Aquitain , Brother to Lewis XI . King of France ; but he dying suddenly , Henry at last was reconcil'd to Ferdinand and Isabella , and died in the Year 1472.

§ . 9. Ferdinand the Catholick and Isabella . The Kingdom of Castile and Arragon united . From this match of Ferdinand ( whom the Castilians call The V. or The Catholick ) with Isabella , sprang the great Fortune and Power of Spain , it under his Reign arriving to that pitch of Greatness , which ever since has made it both the Terrour and the Envy of Europe . This Ferdinand also met with some obstacles at the beginning of his Reign , the States of Castile having limited his Power within too narrow Bounds : And Joan , the late King Henry's suppos'd Daughter , having contracted a match with Alfonso King of Portugal , who entring Castile with a puissant Army , caus'd her to be proclaim'd Queen ; but the Portugueses being soundly beaten , the whole design vanish'd , and Joan retiring into a Monastery , the civil Commotions were totally suppress'd . The next care of Ferdinand was to regulate such Disorders as were crept into the Government in the former Reigns ; wherefore he caus'd that Law-book to be compil'd , which from the City of Toro , where it first was publish'd , is call'd Leges Tauri . In the Year also 1478 , the famous Spanish Inquisition was first instituted by him against the Moors and Jews , The first beginning of the Spanish Inquisition . who having once profess'd themselves Christians , did afterwards return to their Idolatry and Superstitious Worship . This Court of Inquisition is esteemed an inhuman and execrable Tribunal among other Nations , and carries the greatest Injustice with it , in ordering the Children to bear the Guilt of their Parents , nor permitting any body to know his Accusers to clear himself against them : But the Spaniards ascribe to this Inquisition , the benefit which they enjoy of one Religion , the variety of which has brought great Inconveniencies upon other States : 'T is true , by those means you may make Hypocrites , not sincere Christians . After he had order'd his Affairs at home , 1497. and after the death of his Father , taken upon him the Government of Arragon , he undertook an Expedition against the Moors of Granada , 1481. which lasted ten Years , wherein the Spaniards were routed near Mallaga , 1483. but quickly reveng'd themselves upon their Enemies , taking from them one place after another , till they at last besieg'd the City of Granada with 50000 Foot and 12000 Horse , Granada taken . and having forc'd the King Boabdiles to a surrender , they put an end to the Kingdom of the Moors in Spain , 1492. after it had stood there for above 700 Years : And to prevent the possibility of their ever encreasing again in Spain , he banish'd 170000 Families of Jews and Moors out of Spain , by which means , the Kingdom nevertheless was despoil'd of vast Riches , and of a great number of Inhabitants . After this he took from them Mazalquivir , Oran , Pennon de Velez and Mellilla , situated upon the Coast of Barbary . Ferdinand also made use of this opportunity to teach his Nobles , who were grown overpowerfull , their due Respect and Obedience to the King , and took upon himself the Sovereign Disposal of all the Spanish Orders of Knighthood , which were grown to that excess of Riches and Power in Spain , that they were formidable to its Kings . Much about the same time Christopher Columbus , 1494. a Genouese , discover'd America , after his Offers had been refus'd by the Kings of Portugal and England ; America discover'd . and after he had been seven Years solliciting at the Court of Castile for a supply to undertake the Voyage : At last 17000 Ducats were employed in equipping three Vessels , out of which Stock such prodigious Conquests and Riches have accru'd to Spain , that ever since it has aim'd at the Universal Monarchy of Europe . How easily the Spaniards did conquer these vast Countries , and with what Barbarity they us'd the Inhabitants , is too long to be related here . Not long after a War was kindl'd betwixt Spain and France , which has been the occasion of inspeakable Miseries in Europe ; after these two Warlike Nations were freed from that Evil which had hitherto diverted them from medling with Foreign Affairs , the French having rid themselves from the English , and the Spaniards from the Moors . For , when Charles VIII . The first rise of the War betwixt France and Spain . King of France , undertook an Expedition against the Kingdom of Naples , Ferdinand did not judge it for his Interest , to let the French , by conquering this Kingdom , to become Masters of Italy ; especially , since by marrying his Daughters he was in aliance with England , Portugal and the Netherlands , and besides the then kings of Naples descended from the House of Arragon : And tho France lately enter'd with him into a Confederacy , by vertue of which the French gave up Roussilion to Spain , hoping thereby to bring over Ferdinand to their Party ; nevertheless , when he perceiv'd , That by all his Intercessions he could not disswade him from undertaking of this Expedition , he enter'd into a Confederacy with the Pope , Emperour , Venice and Milan against France . He also sent to the assistance of the Neapolitans , Gonsalvus Ferdinand de C●rdua , afterwards sirnam'd The Grand Captain , under whose Conduct the French were beaten out of the Neapolitan Territories , whilst he himself made an inrode into Languedock . In the Year 1500 the Moors living in the Mountains near Granada rebell'd , and were not without great difficulty appeas'd . Afterwards an Agreement was made betwixt Ferdinand and Lewis XII . King of France , concerning the Kingdom of Naples , under pretence , to make War from thence against the Turks ; which being soon conquer'd by their joint Power , they divided it according to their Agreement . But because each of them would have had this delicious Morsel for himself , they fell at variance concerning the Limits and some other matters which interven'd betwixt two Nations that had an animosity against one another : Wherefore they came quickly to Blows , and Gonsalvus routed the French near Ceriniola , took the City of Naples , beat them again near the River Liris or Garigliano , and taking Cajeta , drove the French a second time out of the Kingdom of Naples : But Gonsalvus was not rewarded by Ferdinand according to his Deserts , for he not only lesien'd his Authority at Naples , but also being suspicious , that he either intended to keep that Kingdom for Philip , Son-in-law to Ferdinand , or else for himself , Ferdinand undertook a Journey in Person to Naples , on purpose to bring Gonsalvus handsomly away from thence ; and taking him along with him into Spain , he treated him ill for his great deserts : In the mean time died the Queen Isabella , 1504. which occasion'd some Differences betwixt Ferdinand and his Son-in-law Philip the Netherlander , Philip. Ferdinand pretending , according to the last Will of Isabella , to take upon him the Administration of Castile . And to maintain his Claim the better , he enter'd into a Confederacy with France , by marrying Germana de Foix , Sister to Lewis XII . hoping thereby to obtain a powerfull Assistance , in case Philip should come to attack him : But Philip coming into Spain , and taking upon him the Administration of the Government in the name of his Lady Joan , 1506. Ferdinand retir'd into Arragon . But Philip died soon after , whose Queen Joan being not in her right Wits , yet undertook the Administration of the Government , not without the opposition of some of the chief of the Nobility ; wherefore , the Administration of the Government was by common consent committed to Ferdinand after his return from Naples , notwithstanding the Emperour Maximilian did pretend to it , in the right of his Grandson Charles . In the Year 1508 Ferdinand enter'd into a Confederacy against the Venetians , whereby he regain'd the Cities of Calabria , Brindisi , Otranto , Trano , Mola and Polignano , which the Venetians had formerly obtain'd for some Services done to the Neapolitans . But as soon as Ferdinand perceiv'd that the Venetians were like to be swallow'd up by the Emperour and France , the Pope and he left the Confederacy , thinking it more convenient to preserve the State of Venice ; since by adding the Territories of Venice to those of Milan , which were then possess'd by the French , they would have grown too powerfull in Italy . Hence arose a War , in which John d' Albert , King of Navarre , taking part with the French , was upon instigation of Ferdinand excommunicated by the Pope ; under which pretext Ferdinand took an opportunity to possess himself of that part of the Kingdom , 1512. which lies on the Spanish side of the Pyrenean Mountains ; which since that time the French have in vain indeavour'd to recover . Ferdinand conquer'd Na●●arre . In the Year 1510 the Spaniards took Bugia and Tripolis upon the Coast of Barbary ; but were routed in the Island of Gerbis . This wise King died in the Year 1516.

§ . 10. Him succeeded his Grandson by his Daughter , Charles , Charles . the fifth Emperour of that Name , who , with the assistance of the Cardinal Ximenes , immediately took upon himself the Administration of the Government , his Mother , to whom the same did belong , being incapable of Administring it . This Prince , who , since Charles the Great , was the most Potent Prince that hath been in Europe , spent the greatest part of his Life in Travels and Wars . In the very beginning of his Reign , there were some Commotions in Spain , which were soon appeased . John D' Albert also made an Inrode into the Kingdom of Navarre , in hopes to recover it , but was quickly repulsed . But with the French , during his whole Life , he waged continual Wars . For , though in the Year 1516 , he made a League with King Francis I. whereby the Daughter of Francis was promised to him in Marriage ; yet was this Tie not strong enough to withhold the Animosity of these two courageous Princes . Charles , who was flush'd up with the great Success of his House , had always in his Mind his Motto , Plus ultra . But Francis , who was surrounded every-where by so potent a Prince , did oppose his Designs with all his Might , fearing , lest his Power should grow too strong both for him and all the rest of Europe . Charles obtain'd a most particular advantage . 1519. When the Imperial Dignity was conferr'd upon him ; to obtain which for himself , or some-body else , Francis had labour'd with all his Might , Wars betwixt Charles and France . but in vain . Robert de Mare , Lord of Sedan , withdrawing himself from the Emperour , and putting himself under the Protection of France , with whose assistance he attack'd the Lord of Emmerick , who was under the Emperour's protection , administer'd new matter of jealsousie , which quickly broke out into an open flame in the Netherlands . In which War the French lost Tournay and St. Amant , but beat the Imperialists from before Meziores . Charles also did intend to drive the French out of Milan upon instigation of Pope Leo X. Charles pretending that Francis had neglected to receive this Dutchy in fief of the Empire , beat the French near Bicoque . Fonterabie also , which they had taken by surprize , was re-taken by force from the French . It proved also very disadvantageous to them , that the Constable Charles of Bourbon , sided with the Emperour ; and entring Provence , 1524. besieged Marseilles ; Which nevertheless he was forced to quit , as soon as Francis march'd with all his Forces that way into Italy to recover the Milaneze . Where he took the City of Milan , but at the Siege of Pavia was Attack'd by the Imperial Generals , who totally routed his Army ; and having taken him Prisoner , 1525. carried him into Spain . The King himself was in part the occasion of this loss , he having sent a great part of his Army towards Naples and Savona ; and those that remained with him , were most Italians , Swiss and Grisons , who did not perform their Duty in the Battle ; and most of his Generals were of opinion , to avoid the hazard of a Battle , by retiring under the City of Milan . The French also succeeded ill in the Diversion , which they endeavour'd to give the Emperour ; for by the help of Charles Duke of Geldres , and the Friselanders , for they were at that time worsted by Charles's Forces . There were some that advised Charles , to set Francis at liberty without any Ransome , and by this Act of Generosity to oblige him for ever : But he followed the Counsels of such as did advise to make advantage of so great a Prisoner . He therefore imposed very hard Conditions upon him , which Francis refusing to accept of , out of discontent fell into a dangerous Sickness , so that Charles himself went to visit and comfort him ; Though he was advised to the contrary by his Chancellour Gallinaca , who alledged that such a Visit , where he did not intend to promise the Prisoner his liberty , would rather seem to proceed from Covetousness , and fear of losing the advantage of his Ransome , than from any civility or good inclination towards him . And this Sickness was the real cause , why at last the Treaty , concerning his Liberty , which had been so long on foot , was finish'd , the Emperour fearing that his Discontent might plunge him into another Sickness , or Death it self . In the mean time , the prodigious Success which attended the Emperour , did raise no small jealousie among other Princes ; and by instigation of Pope Clement VII . three Armies were raised to maintain the Liberty of Italy . To prevent this Storm , and especially to withdraw the Pope from the Confederacy , the Emperour's Generals marched directly against Rome , which they took by Storm , ( where Charles of Bourbon was slain , ) and for several days together plunder'd the City , and committed great Out-rages . The Pope himself was besieged in the Castle of St. Angelo ; and Charles , at the same time that the Pope was enclosed , his own Forces caused Prayers to be made for 40 days together , Rome taken by Charles V. for his deliverance ; at last , forced by Famine , he was forced to Surrender , and to renounce the above-mention'd League . 1527. The Conditions , on which Francis had obtain'd his Liberty , were , That Francis should surrender the Dukedom of Burgundy ; to renounce the Sovereignty over Flanders and Artois ; quit all his pretences upon Naples and Milan ; to marry the Emperour's Sister Eleonora , and to give his two Sons as Pledges for the performance of these Articles . But as soon as he got into his own Kingdom he protested against the Treaty , which was extorted from him during his Imprisonment : And making a League with the Pope , England , Venice , the Suiss and Florence , sent an Army into Italy under the Command of Odet de Foix , Lord of Lautree . This occasion'd not only that very gross words pass'd betwixt these two Princes , but they also gave one another the lye , and a Challenge pass'd betwixt them : But Lautree , who had at first great success , being destroy'd with his Army by Sickness in the Siege of Naples , A Peace mad● at Cambray . a Peace was at last concluded at Cambray , in the Year 1529 , by virtue of which Francis paid for his Sons 2550000 Rixdollars , renounc'd his Pretensions to Flanders , Artois , Milan , and Nalpes , and marry'd Eleonora , Sister to the Emperour ; out of which Marriage , if a Son should be born , he was to be put into the possession of the Dukedom of Burgundy . In the Year 1530 , Charles was Crowned by Pope Clement VIII . at Bononia , whereby he obtained from the Emperour , that the Common-wealth of Florence should be made a Principality , and the said City was by force obliged to admit this Change . Alexander de Medicis being constituted Duke , to whom the Emperour married his natural Daughter Margaret . In the same Year the Bishop of Vtrecht resign'd the Soveraignty of that City , and the Province of Over-yssel , into the Hands of Charles , and the Provinces of Geldren , Zutphen , Groningen ; the Twente and Drente also fell into his Hands . In the Year 1535 , he went with a puissant Army into Africa , took Tunis and Goletta , restoring the Kingdom of Tunis to Muleassa , who was banished before by Haradin Barbarossa , but in Goletta he left a Garrison . In the Year 1537 , another War broke out betwixt Charles and Francis : For the latter could not digest the loss of Milan ; and being advised by the Pope , that when-ever he intended to Attack Milan , he should first make himself Master of Savoy ; and Francis Sforzia dying at the same time , he fell upon Charles Duke of Savoy ; and under pretence , that he defrauded his Mother of her Dowry , drove him quite out of Savoy , and conquered a great part of Piedmont . But the Emperour , who was resolved to annex the Dutchy of Milan to his Family , came to the assistance of the Duke of Savoy , and at the Head of his Army , entring Provence , took Aix , and some other Places ; but his Army being much weakned with Sickness , for want of Provisions , he was forced to retire again . In the Netherlands , the Imperialists took St. Paul and Monstrevil , Killing great Numbers of the French . 1538. Through Mediation of the Pope , Paul III. a Truce of 10 Years was concluded at Nissa in Provence ; after which these two Princes had a friendly Interview at Aigues Mortes . And in the next following Year , the Emperour , against the advice of his friends , ventured to take his way through the very heart of France , being desirous with all possible speed to compose the Disorders , which were arisen at Ghent . Yet had he before by the Connestable Anna Montmorancy , cajolled Francis into a belief , that he would restore to him the Dutchy of Milan , which however he never intended to perform . In the Year 1541 , he undertook an Expedition against Algiers in Africa , at the latter end of the Year , against the advice of the Pope and others of his friends , who persuaded him to stay till next Spring . He there Landed his Army with good success ; but a few days after such prodigious Storms and Rains did fall , which dispersed his Ships , and spoiled the Fire-locks of the Souldiers , that the Emperour was obliged , with the loss of one half of his Army , 1542. to return into Spain . In the Year next following , Francis broke with him again , under pretence that his Ambassadours Caesar Fregosus and Anthony Rinco , which he had sent through the Milanese , by the way of Venice , to go to the Ottoman Port , were upon the River Po Murthered by Orders of the Governour of Milan . Wherefore William Duke of Cleves entring Brabant on one side , the Duke of Orleans on the other side , took Luxemburgh and some other places . The Dauphin besieg'd Perpignan , but was oblig'd to raise the Siege : The famous Pirate Barbarossa , did by the instigation of Francis , great mischief on the Sea-coasts of Calabria , destroying Nissa in Provence by Fire . Charles seeing himself at once attack'd in so many places , setting aside the Differences which were arisen about the Divorce betwixt Henry and his Aunt Catherine , made a League with Henry King of England , wherein it was agreed , That the Emperour should force his way through Champaigne , whilst Henry enter'd into Picardy , that so they might , by joining their Forces , ruine the whole Power of France . The Emperour therefore , with an Army of 50000 men , beat the Duke of Cleves in the Netherlands , forcing him to surrender Guelderland ; and after having recover'd the places in Luxemburgh , taken before by the French ▪ enter'd into Campaigne , taking by force Lygny and Disier : Francis kept with his Army on the other side of the River Marne , and not daring to fight the Imperialists , contented himself to ravage the Country which they were to march through , to endeavour to cut off their Provisions : Nevertheless the Imperial Army found a sufficient quantity at Espernay and Chasteau Thierry . This occasion'd such a Terrour and Confusion in Paris , that the Citizens were for leaving the City , if the King , by his Presence , had not encourag'd them to stay . And if , on the other side , King Henry had acted according to the Agreement , they might easily have got the French Army betwixt them , and in all likelyhood , would have put a period to the French Greatness . But Henry being detain'd at the Sieges of Bologne and Monstrevil , sent word to the Emperour , That he would not stir further , till he had made himself Master of these two places . Charles then began to suspect the King of England , whom he perceived meerly to be for his own Interest , and did not think fit to trust any longer ; considering also with himself what vast charges he was at in this War , and how thereby his Designs were retarded which he had projected against the Protestants in Germany ; as also , that his Forces had receiv'd a considerable overthrow in Italy , near Carizola , from the French , he made thereupon a Peace with Francis at Crespy in the County of Valois . Peace made at Crespy . Then Charles undertook to subdue the Protestants , 1544. entring , for that purpose , into a League with Pope Paul III. Charles wages War against the Protestants in Germany . which War he carried on with such success , that without great trouble he overthrew them , making their chief Heads , the Elector of Saxony and Landtgrave of Hesse , 1547. Prisoners : The Emperour made use of this Policy , in fomenting Divisions betwixt Duke Maurice and his Cousin , the Elector of Saxony ; and refusing to fight with them at first , he thereby protracted the War , foreseeing , that a Confederacy under so many Heads would not last long , and that the Cities , which contributed the most towards it , would grow quickly weary of the Charges of the War . Francis also , and Henry VIII . were both of them lately dead , who else , questionless , with all their Power , would have oppos'd his designs of oppressing the Protestants , thereby to make himself absolute Master in Germany . The Heads also of the Protestant League did greatly contribute to their own Misfortune , they having let slip several opportunities , especially , at first , before the Emperour had rightly settled his Matters , when they might have done him considerable mischief ; nevertheless Charles was no great gainer by these Victories , because he used the Conquer'd , whom he was not able to keep in Obedience by force , with too much rigour , keeping the Captive Princes in too close an Imprisonment . He also disobliged Maurice Elector of Saxony , after his Father-in-law the Landtgrave of Hesse , had by his persuasions surrender'd himself to the Emperour . The Elector therefore being persuaded by the Prayers of his Children and others , who objected to him , That by his Assistance their Religion and Liberty were in danger of being lost , he fell unawares upon Charles , whom , 1550. under favour of the Night and a Fogg , he forc'd to retire from Inspruck . After this exploit a Peace was concluded by the Mediation of King Ferdinand , where , Treaty at Passaw . in the Treaty at Passaw , the Protestant Religion was establish'd . In the mean while Henry II. King of France , coming to the assistance of the Protestants , had taken Metz , Toul and Verdun , The Emperour attackt Metz again with great fury , but having been fain to leave it after a considerable loss sustain'd , he discharg'd his Fury upon Hesdin and Tervanne , which he levell'd with the Ground . In Italy the Imperialists took Siena , 1554. which afterwards Philip II. gave to Cosmus Duke of Tuscany , reserving to himself the Sovereignty and some Sea-ports . At last , Charles tir'd with the Toils of the Empire , and the Infirmities of his Body , resigned the Imperial Crown to his Brother Ferdinand , who would not consent that the same should come to his Son Philip. But to Philip he gave all his Kingdoms and Territories , except those in Germany ( which fell to Ferdinand's share ) reserving to himself only a yearly allowance of 100000 Ducats . Abdication of Charles . He had made a little before , a Truce of five Years with France , which was soon broke by the persuasions of the Pope , who endeavouring to drive the Family of Colonna out of their Possessions ; and they being upheld by the Spaniards , the French sided with the Pope . But this War prov'd very unfortunate to the French , they being routed at St. Quintins , lost that City , and the Mareschal de Thermes was also soundly beaten near Gravelin . Peace betwixt Spain and France , 1559. At last a Peace was again concluded at Chateau en Chambrasis , by virtue of which , the French were obliged to restore all what they had taken in Italy , which had been the occasion of some Blood-shed by Francis and Henry . But under-hand it was agreed , That both the King of Spain and France should endeavour to root out the Hereticks ( as they call'd them ) which succeeded afterwards very ill both in Spain and France . In the Year before this , viz. Charles dies . 1558 , died Charles in the Convent of St. Justus in Spain , where he spent his last days in quiet . His last Will and Testament ( tho never so rational ) was so far from being pleasing to the Inquisition , that it wanted but little of having been burnt as Heretical . But his Father Confessour and the rest of the Monks in that Convent , who had been present , were forc'd to undergo the severe Judgment of this Court .

§ . 11. Philip II. Under the Reign of Philip II. the greatness of the Spanish Monarchy began to be at a stand ; neither had its Kings the same success , as formerly , to get vast Kingdoms by Marriages . For from the match of Philip with Mary Queen of England , came no Children . And truly , in my Opinion , the Spanish Greatness receiv'd the first shock at that time , when Charles V. surrender'd his Dominions in Germany to his Brother Ferdinand , and afterwards had him elected King of the Romans ; by which means the Power of this House was divided , and the Imperial Crown separated from the Spanish Monarchy . Charles would fain have afterwards persuaded Ferdinand to transfer the Succession of the Imperial Crown upon Philip ; but he being persuaded by his Son Maximilian to keep what he had got , would in no ways part with it . He was also much belov'd by the Germans , whereas they had an aversion against Philip ; who being a meer Spaniard , did not as much as understand the German Tongue : And Ferdinand and his Successours prov'd very good Princes , who were not fond of the Spanish methods of Governing . But that which gave the greatest shock to the Spanish Greatness , were the Troubles arisen in the Netherlands . The reason why this Evil grew incurable , was , because Philip being over fond of his ease , would rather sit still in Spain , than by his Presence endeavour to stop the current before it ran too violent , tho' his Father did not think it too much , to venture himself at the Discretion of Francis his Rival , to appease the Tumults arisen only in the City of Ghent . Another reason was , That he took the most violent course , by sending the Duke of Alva , a cruel Man , among the Netherlunders , who being us'd to a mild sort of Government , were thereby put into despair ; especially when they were inform'd , That the Inquisition had declar'd Criminal , not only those who were guilty of the Rebellion , and pulling down the Images , but also all such Catholicks as had not made resistance against them . The Saying of Anthony Vargas , a Spanish Minister , is a famous as ridiculous ; Haeretici diruerunt templa , boni nihil fecerunt contra , ergo omnes debent patibulari ; i. e. The Hereticks demolish'd the Churches , the Catholicks did not oppose them , wherefore they ought all to be hang'd . Besides this , the Spaniards were much hated by the Netherlanders , not only because of the great differences there was betwixt the Manners of these Nations , but also , because these latter had been in great esteem with Charles V. who was very like them in all his Behaviour : On the contrary , Philip only encourag'd the Spaniards , who having an extraordinary conceit of their own Abilities , and taking the Netherlanders for Cowards , did not think they had Courage enough to oppose their Designs . The Spaniards also were well pleas'd to see the Netherlanders to begin first , hoping the King would thereby take an opportunity to clip their Privileges , and by making them all alike obtain an absolute Dominion over them : This done , they hoped to make these Countries their Armory and Store-house , from whence they might with more ease invade France and England , and raise the Spanish Monarchy to the highest degree of Greatness . But the Netherlanders , on the other side , were resolv'd not to part with their Liberty , nor to be treated as a conquer'd Nation . And when Philip , at his departure , would leave Spanish Garrisons in the Netherlands , and to soften the matter , constituted the Prince of Orange and Earl of Egmont , Generals over them , yet could they not be persuaded to accept of the same , alledging , That the Netherlanders had got but very small Advantages by the Peace with France , which they had procur'd by their own Valour , if they now should be in danger of being subdu'd themselves by a foreign Power . The neighbouring Princes also , but especially Elizabeth , Queen of England , took an opportunity by these troubles to empty the vast Treasures of Spain , and to exhaust its Strength . The Protestant Princes also of Germany , who hated the Spaniards , were glad of this opportunity , and assisted the Prince of Orange upon all occasions . And the Emperours thought it more convenient to be at quiet and to please the Germans , than to be too forward to assist their Cousins . These Commotions in the Netherlands did also occasion the War betwixt Philip and Elizabeth , War with England . Queen of England , she not only affording assistance to the Netherlanders , but also the English Privateers doing considerable mischief to the Spanish West-India Ships ; and the famous Francis Drake plunder'd the very Southern Coast of America . On the other side , Philip , by supporting the Rebels in Ireland , proved very troublesome to Queen Elizabeth . At last Philip did resolve with one stroke to put down the whole Strength of England ; to which purpose he was equipping a great Fleet for several Years together , which he call'd The Invincible , the like never had been seen before those times . The Fleet consisted of 150 Sail of Ships , which carried 1600 great pieces of Brass Cannon , and 1050 of Iron ; 8000 Seamen , 20000 Souldiers , besides Volunteers ; the Charge amounted daily to 30000 Ducats , but the whole Preparations to twelve Milions of Ducats . The Pope Sixtus V. also excommunicated Queen Elizabeth , assigning her Kingdom to Philip. But all these Preparations came to nothing , the greatest part of this Fleet being destroy'd , The Spanish Armado destroyed . partly by the English and Dutch , partly by Tempests , few return'd home , and that in a most miserable condition , so that there was scarce a Noble Family in Spain but went into Mourning for the loss of some Friend or another . But the evenness of Temper is much to be admir'd in Philip , who receiv'd this bad news without the least alteration , giving only this Answer , I did not send them out to fight against the Winds and Seas . 1588. Afterwards the English and Dutch Fleets being joined , beat the Spanish Fleet near Cadiz , taking from the Spaniards , not only a great many Ships richly laden , but also the City of Cadiz it self ; which nevertheless was again left by the English General , 1596. the Earl of Essex , after he had plunder'd it , to the great dishonour of the English , who might from thence have done a great deal of mischief to the Spaniards . Neither did Spain get any advantage by having entangled it self in the Troubles , and ( as it was call'd ) the holy League , made in France . Philip , 't is true , propos'd to himself to have met with a fair opportunity , by excluding the Bourbon Family to annex the Crown of France to his House , or by raising Divisions in this Kingdom to swallow up one piece or another , or to assist one of his Creatures in obtaining that Crown ; or , at least , by dividing it into so many Factions , so to weaken its Strength , as that it should not be able to recover it self for a considerable time . But by the Courage and good Fortune of Henry IV. all these Measures were broke , and he declaring himself a Catholick , took away the Foundation whereupon the League was built . Thus Philip lost his vast Expences ; and besides this , suffer'd extreamly in his Affairs ; for in the mean time that he sent the Duke of Parma , Governour of the Netherlands , to the assistance of the League in France , the Confederate Netherlanders had leisure given them to put themselves and their Affairs into a good posture : Philip acted in this business according to the old proverb ; That he who hunts two Hares at once , commonly catches neither of them : Besides , Henry IV. after he had restor'd his Affairs in France , 1594. declar'd War against Philip ; which was nevertheless carried on in the Netherlands with various success , the Count de Fuentes taking Cambray in the Year 1595 , and in the Year next following , the Archduke Albert , Calais . On the other side , Henry recover'd Fere from the Spaniards . In the Year 1597 , the Spaniards took Amiens by surprise , which Henry recover'd not without great difficulty . At last , a Peace was concluded in the same Year betwixt France and Spain at Vervin , Peace made at Vervin . because Philip was unwilling to leave his Son , who was but young , entangl'd in a War with so great a Captain as Henry was ; and Henry was sensible , that the Kingdom of France being enervated did greatly want a Peace . Philip also waged several Wars against the Turks ; for the Pyrate Dragutes had taken from the Spaniards Tripoli , 1551. after they had been in possession of it for forty Years . To retake this , Philip sent a strong Army , 1560. which took the Isle of Gerbis ; but being afterwards beaten by the Turkish Fleet , he lost , together with the Island , 18000 Men and 42 Ships . In the Year 1564 Philip retook Pegnon de Velez . In the Year 1566 Maltha was besieg'd by the Turks during the space of four Months , which was reliev'd by Philip , he forcing the Turks to raise the Siege with great loss . In the Year 1571 the Confederate Fleet of Spain , Venice , and other Italian States , under the Command of Don John of Austria , did obtain a most signal Victory over the Turkish Fleet near Lepanto , whereby the Turkish Naval Strength was weaken'd to that degree , that they were never afterwards so formidable in those Seas , as they were before : But else the Spaniards had got no great Reputation in this War ; for by their delays that considerable Island of Rhodes was lost before . In the Year 1573 Don John of Austria pass'd with an Army into Africa , to retake Tunis , which succeeded so well , that he forc'd the City , and added a new Fortification to it : But in the Year next following , the Turks sent a puissant Army thither , and retook the City , its Fortifications being not quite perfected , as also Goletta , which being not very well provided with all Necessaries , was lost by the unskilfulness and Cowardice of the Governour ; so that the whole Kingdom of Tunis , to the great prejudice of the Christians , fell into the Hands of the Turks . At home Philip had a War with the Marans of Granada , who rebelling against him , were supported by the Algerines , and could not be subdu'd but with great difficulty ; and if the Turks had been quick enough in giving them timely assistance , it might have prov'd very dangerous to Spain . This Rebellion did not end till the Year 1570 , after it had continued for three years . 1592. There were also some Commotions among the Arragonians ; who pretended to take part with Anthony Perez , who standing upon his privilege against the Process that was made him for having upon the King's Orders , murther'd Escovedo , an intimate Friend of Don John of Austria . Philip , by this intended to purge himself of the Infamy of the fact , and at once to revenge himself upon Perez , who had been unfaithfull to him in some Love Intrigue , aiming at that himself which he had undertaken to procure for the King . And tho this did not much redound to the honour of Philip , yet by this he took an opportunity to retrench the Privileges of the Arragonians . In the Year 1568 , Philip caus'd his Son Charles to be kill'd , under pretence that he had endeavour'd to kill his Father ; and not long after , the Queen Isabella also , Charles's Step-mother , died , not without suspicion of having been poison'd . But a great many are of opinion , that some Love Intrigues were the occasion of their death , which is the more probable , because the said Isabella being intended for the Bride of Charles , had been taken by the Father in spite of his Son . Portugal falls to Spain . Henry King of Portugal dying , there were several pretenders to that Crown , among whom was Philip , 1579. as being born of Isabella , Emanuel King of Portugal's Daughter , who maintain'd his Right by the Sword ; and under the Conduct of the Duke of Alva conquer'd the Kingdom , forcing Anthony , the Bastard , who had caus'd himself to be proclaim'd King , to fly into England , and from thence into France , 1595. where he died an Exile in Paris : Only the Island of Tercera held out for some time longer , which the French intending to relieve , were totally routed by the Spaniards . And thus Philip became Master , both of the East and West Indies , the two greatest Mines of Riches in the World . Nevertheless , the French , English and Hollanders had found out a way to ease him of these prodigious Revenues . For Philip , just before his death , did confess , That the War with the Netherlands only , had cost him 564 Millions of Ducats . And truly , it is very probable , that trusting to his vast Riches he was thereby prompted to his ambitious Designs , and to undertake more than prov'd beneficial to him . He died in the Year 1598.

§ . 12. Philip III. Philip the IIId's Father had left him the Kingdom in Peace with France , but the Dutch War grew every day the heavier upon the Spaniards . The Spaniards did hope , that after Philip II. in his latter days had married his Daughter Clara Eugenia to Albert Archduke of Austria , giving her the Netherlands for a Dowry , the Dutch would become more pliable , and reunite themselves with the rest of the Provinces in the Netherlands , as having now a Prince of their own , and not liable to the Spanish Government . But because the Hollanders did by no means like this bait , and at the Siege of Ostend gave a tast to the Spaniards , both of their Strength and firm Resolution , that they were resolv'd to stand it out with them , the Spaniards resolv'd to make Peace with them ; especially since the Hollanders had found out the way to the East Indies , where they made great progress ; France also enjoying a peaceable Government under Henry IV. and encreasing in Power , it was fear'd , That if the French should fall upon Spain with fresh Forces , which had been tir'd out by this tedious War , it might prove fatal to Spain . They were also in hopes , that the fear of a foreign Enemy ceasing , the Hollanders in time of Peace might fall into Divisions among themselves ; or at least , that Peace and Plenty might abate their Courage . The Spaniards did sufficiently shew their eagerness for a Peace with Holland , by setting the Treaty on foot in the Hague , by sending Ambrosius Spinola himself , among others , thither as Ambassadour , and by granting and allowing them the East India Trade . Whereas the Hollanders carried it very high , and would not abate an ace of their Proposals . Truc● with Holland . At last , a Truce for twelve Years was concluded with Holland . In the Year next following , 1609. Philip banish'd 900000 Marans ( the Off-spring of the ancient Moors , who had profess'd themselves Christians only for a shew ) out of Spain , because they intended to raise a Rebellion , and had underhand crav'd Assistance from Henry IV. In the same Year the Spaniards took the Fortress of Arache , situated on the Coast of Africa ; as they had likewise possess'd themselves before of the Harbour of Final , 1602. near Genoua , in the Year 1619. Those of the Valtelins did withdraw themselves from the Grisons . The Spaniards sided with the former , in hopes to unite them with the Dukedom of Milan . But France taking part with the Grisons , the business was protracted for a great many years , till at last matters were restor'd to their former state . This difference did rouse up all Italy , and the Pope himself took part with the Grisons , tho Protestants , assisting them in the recovery of the Valtelins . The War being broken out in Germany , the Spaniards sent Ambrose Spinola out of the Netherlands into the Palatinate , part of which was subdu'd by them . Philip III. died in the Year 1621.

§ . 13. Philip IV. His Son Philip IV. at the very beginning of his Reign made great alterations in the Court , sending away the Creatures of the Duke de Lerma , the Favourite of his Father : He himself foreseeing what was likely to befall him , did timely obtain a Cardinal's Cap , fearing the King should aim at his Head . With the beginning of the Reign of this King , the Truce with Holland being expir'd , the War was rekindled , in which Spinola was forc'd to raise the Siege of Bergen op Zoom , because Christian Duke of Brunswick , and General Mansfeld , 1622. having before routed the Spaniards near Fleury , came to the assistance of the Hollanders . Pieter Heyn surpris'd the Spanish Silver Fleet , with a Booty of 12 Millions of Gilders . 1628. At the same time the Hollanders did settle themselves in Brasile , taking the City of Olinda . In the Year 1629 , the Spaniards being in hopes to make a considerable Diversion , and to put the Dutch hard to it , made an Inrode into the Velaw , and took Amersfort , whilst the Hollanders were busied in the Siege of Hertogenbusk Bois le Duc , but the Hollanders taking Wesel by surprise , they were oblig'd to retreat with all speed over the River Yssel , for fear , that their retreat should be cut off by the Dutch. In the Year 1639 , a great Fleet was sent out of Spain into the Channel , under the Command of Don Oquendo , which was destroy'd by Martin Tromp , in the Downs , in the very sight of the English . What the Intention was of sending so great a Fleet this way , was not generally known at that time ; but afterwards it was divulged , that the same was intended against Sweden , and that there were 20000 Men ready in Denmark , which , as soon as this Fleet should have appear'd before Gothenburg , were to have join'd them and enter'd Swedeland . Afterwards the War was protracted , but most to the disadvantage of the Spaniards , till the Year 1648 , when the Spaniards concluded a Peace with the Hollanders at Munster , declaring them a free People , renouncing all their pretences over them , and leaving to them all the places which they had taken from them . And notwithstanding France did its utmost to hinder the conclusion of this Peace , at least so long , till that Kingdom might also make a Peace with Spain ; but the Hollanders did not think it adviseable to stay their leisure , fearing , that if Spain was brought too low , the French would thereby be enabled to swallow up the Netherlands , and become their immediate Neighbours , which they foresaw would prove fatal to their State . It was also alledged , and that with good reason , That it was time to put up the Sword , when all those things might be obtained by fair means for which it was drawn at first ; and that the Province of Holland had contracted considerable Debts . Spain also perceiving , that the Dutch were not to be overcome by force , was willing to agree to those Conditions , being glad to be rid once of so troublesome an Enemy , that they might have the more leisure to be even with France and Portugal . It is reported , that this War cost the Spaniards above One thousand five hundred Millions of Ducats . In the Year 1628 , Vincent II. Duke of Mantua , dying , the Emperour endeavour'd to exclude Charles Duke of Nevers , he being a Frenchman born , from the succession of that Dukedom , under pretence of having neglected some Matters appertaining to it , as being a Fief of the Empire . The Savoyards also took this opportunity to renew their Pretensions upon Montferrat , and the Spaniards , in hopes of getting something in the Fray , besieged Casal . On the other side , the French took part with the Duke of Nevers , raised the Siege of Casal , and put the Duke of Nevers into possession of the Dukedom of Mantua , which did much weaken the Reputation of the Spaniards in Italy . In the Year 1635 , the French denounced War against Spain , under pretence , that they had taken prisoner Philip Christopher Elector of Treves , he being under the protection of the King of France , and that they had driven the French Garrison out of Treves , and possess'd themselves of that City ; but the true reason was , that it was thought high time to bridle the Ambition and Power of the House of Austria , which after the Battel of Nordlingen , and the Peace concluded at Prague , was grown very formidable , and France being well settled at home , began to be in a very flourishing condition . The French therefore , after they had beat the Prince Tomaso near Avennes , enter'd the Netherlands with a great Army , but the Success did not answer Expectation ; the Dutch especially being unwilling , that France should make any considerable Conquests on that side : Neither did the French gain any thing in Italy . In the Year next following the Prince of Conde was forc'd to raise the Siege of Dole ; and the Spaniards entring Picardy fill'd Paris it self with Terrour and Confusion . Gallas also , the Imperial General , endeavoured to enter Burgundy with his Army , but did not advance much . In the Year 1637 the Spaniards lost Landresi . In the next Year they were forced to retire from before Leucate with great loss ; but the Prince of Conde , on the other hand , 1639. had the same ill fortune before Fonterabia ; the Spaniards beat the French soundly near Thionville , but lost Hesdin , Salses and Satins ; and in the Year following , the strong City of Arras , they being besides this , routed near Casal : Nor could they with all their Strength force the Earl of Harcourt from before Turin . Catalonia rebels . In the same Year also the Catalonians did revolt , they being first dissatisfy'd at the Pride of the Duke d'Olivarez , the King's Favourite , against whom they had made great complaints , but were nevertheless sorely oppress'd by him . These discontents encreased after the Catalonians , endeavouring the relief of Salses , were beaten , they pretending that they were not duely assisted by the Castilians , and therefore left the Army and march'd home . Conte Duca taking this opportunity , represented them very ill to the King , and caused their Privileges to be considerably diminished , and their Country to be oppress'd with their quartering of Souldiers . This put them in open Rebellion , and Barcellona beginning first , they drove the Spaniards out of Catalonia . Then seeking Aid from France , they at last , after the Spaniards had cut off by their Cruelty , all hopes of Mercy , put themselves under the Protection of that Kingdom : And it was eleven Years before the Spaniards could quite recover Catalonia , the intestine Commotions in France presenting them with a fair opportunity ; for Barcellona , being not timely reliev'd , was forc'd to surrender to the Spaniards ; 1651. but the Portugueses withdrawing themselves from the Obedience of the Spaniards , Portugal falls off from Spain . gave a great shock to the Spaniards . Philip II. tho he had conquered this Kingdom , 1640. yet had always endeavour'd by mildness , and by preserving their Privileges , to mitigate the hatred which the Portugueses bore to the Castilians , which were grown to that height , that the Priests used to insert it in their Prayers , That God would be pleased to deliver them from the Castilian Yoak : But after his death the Spanish Ministers had not been so carefull by maintaining their Privileges , to keep the affection of the Portugueses , but rather had treated them as a conquered Nation ; which so exasperated the Portugueses , that as soon as they saw Spain begin to decline , 1636. immediately some places in Portugal did rebel , but were soon after reduced to their former Obedience . The Spaniards therefore thought it adviseable , that to bridle this People , nothing could be more proper , than by employing the Nobles as well as the Commoners in the Wars , to purge the superfluous ill Humours of this Nation . In the mean while the Catalonians falling into Rebellion , the Portuguese Nobles were ordered to go into the Field , which they did not relish well ; having besides this , some other reasons to be dissatisfy'd with the Spaniards : And , because the Portugueses had a great affection for the Duke of Braganza , the Spaniards try'd all ways to entice him to come to Court , and supposing that they had cajoll'd him sufficiently with fair promises , invited him very courteously to go in person with the King into the Field ; which invitation , nevertheless he knew how to decline very dexterously . At last the Portuguese Nobility being hard press'd to serve in the Expedition against the Catalonians , The Portugueses . which they would in no ways consent to , unanimously agreed to shake off the Castilian Yoak , and secretly sounded the Inclinations of the Duke of Braganza . As soon as he , upon the perswasions of his Lady , had re●olv'd to accept of the Crown , they broke loose , and surprising the Garrison in the City , Palace and Fort , seiz'd the Ships , kill'd the Secretary of State Vasconcello , who had carried himself very proudly among them , Duke of Braganza proclaimed King of Portugal . and proclaimed the Duke of Braganza King , under the Name of John IV. purging the whole Kingdom within eight days of the Castilians , and that with the loss only of two or three persons . Which may serve as a remarkable instance to convince the World , how easily a Kingdom is lost , where the Peoples Inclination is averse to the supream Head . Thus the Spanish Monarchy received a great blow , and its Power being distracted , it could not act effectually on all sides . 1642. They also lost Perpignan ; tho the French could not go further into Spain , for the Prince of Conde besieged Lerida in vain . 1647. In the Year 1641 , the Prince Monaco driving the Spanish Garrisons out of his Territories , put himself under the protection of France . Massan●llo ' s Rebellion at Naples , 1647. There also happen'd a most dangerous Rebellion at Naples , the Head of which was a poor Fisherman , whose Name was Massanello ; who might have put the whole Kingdom into a flame , if the French had been at hand to give him timely assistance ; but by the prudent management of the Governour , the Earl of Ognato , the Tumult was appeased . Spain then being forc'd to quench the flames on all sides , it could not be so mindfull of Holland , as the most remote , having all hands full , to resist the dangers threatning them nearer home . And the Spaniards had the good fortune to reduce , as we said before , Catalonia , under their Subjection , and to chase the French out of Piombino and Porto Longone ; 1650. but the English took from them the Island of Jamaica in the West Indies . At last France being re-established in its former Tranquility , the Spaniards thought it most convenient to make Peace with that Crown : Which was concluded betwixt the two great Ministers of State , the Cardinal Mazarini and Don Lewis de Haro , The Pyrenean Treaty . in the Pyrenean Mountains : By vertue of which France got Roussilion , and several considerable places in the Netherlands . Spain having thus concluded a Peace with all the rest of its Neighbours , it began in earnest to make War against Portugal . The Spaniards therefore enter'd Portugal with a great Force , taking from the Portugueses several places , but were also at several places soundly beaten . The Battel near Entremos , 1662. where Don Juan , and that near Villa Viciosa , where Caracena received a fatal Defeat , 1665. are most famous : The obtaining of which two Victories on the Portuguese side is chiefly ascribed to the French General Schomberg . Philip IV. died in the Year 1665.

§ . 14. Charles II. He had for his Successour his Son Charles II. a Child of four years of age , who under the Tuition of his Mother , negligently prosecuted the War against Portugal , 1668. and at last , by the Mediation of England , was forc'd to make Peace with that Crown , Peace with Portugal . renouncing his right to the same ; because the French at that time made a grievous havock in the Netherlands . For tho' Mary Teresia , Daughter of Philip IV. at the time when she was married to the King of France had renounc'd all her right of Succession to her paternal Inheritance , yet the French taking the opportunity of their flourishing condition , and the decay'd state of Spain , England also and Holland being engaged in a War with one another , who would else not have left the Netherlands to be devoured by them ; they enter'd Flanders with a vast Army , using among other things , for a pretence , that which in Brabant is called , Jus devolutionis , by which the real Estates of private persons , fall to the Children born during the time of the first marriage , as soon as the Father marries again . The French took in this War , without much resistance , a great many considerable Cities and Forts , viz. Charleroy , Tournay , Lisle , Douay , Oudenarde , and some others ; they conquer'd also the whole Franche Compte , which hastened the Peace betwixt England and Holland , The Tripple Alliance . and occasioned the Tripple Alliance , as it is called , made betwixt England , Sweden and Holland , for the preservation of the Spanish Netherlands . In the following Year France made a Peace with Spain at Aix la Chapelle , Peace made at Aix la Chapelle . restoring to Spain the Franche Compte , but keeping what places he had taken in Flanders . 1668. But when Holland , in the Year 1672 , was attack'd by the French , Spain sided with the Dutch , knowing that the loss of the Vnited Provinces must draw after it that of the Spanish Netherlands : So it came again to an open War , wherein , at first , Spain lost Burgundy . The rebellious Messineses threw themselves under the protection of France , but were afterwards deserted by them . France also got Limburgh , Conde , Peace made as Nimmegen , 1679. Valencienne , Cambray , Ypres , St. Omer , Aeth and Ghent : But a Peace was concluded at Nimmegen , by virtue of which France kept the Franche Compte , and most places taken in the Netherlands , restoring only to Spain , Limburgh , Ghent , Cortryck , Oudenarde , Aeth and Charleroy .

§ . 15. The Nature of the Spaniards . Having thus given a brief History of the Kingdom of Spain , we will also add something concerning the Genius of the Spaniards , and the extent of their Territories , as also of the Strength and Weakness of this Kingdom , and its Condition in reference to its Neighbours : The Spanish Nation therefore is commonly esteem'd to be very wise , and to take remote prospects , throughly weighing a thing before it undertakes it . Whereby , nevertheless the Spaniards , being overcautious and exact in their Counsels , do often lose the opportunities of action . Besides this , the Spaniards are very constant to their Resolutions ; and tho' they fail once in an Attempt , they will try their Fortune again , endeavouring to overcome its frowns by their Constancy . They are very fit for War , and not only brave at the first attack , but also will hold out till the last ; their sober way of living , and spare Bodies make them fit to bear Hunger and Thirst , and to be very watchfull : But this the Spaniards are extreamly blamed for , that they maintain their Gravity by high-flown Words and a proud Behaviour . Tho' those that converse with them , do declare , that this Gravity which appears so odious , is not so much the effect of their Pride , as of a melancholy Constitution and an ill Custom , they never being fond to converse much with Foreign Nations . They are in general , very zealous for the Roman Catholick Religion , and abominate all others . They are seldom fit for any Trade or Business where any hard labour is required ; such as Husbandry , or any Handycraft Trades ; wherefore these are chiefly managed among them by Foreigners . It is credibly reported , That in Madrid alone , there are above 40000 Frenchmen , being for the most part , Merchants , Artists , Handycrafts-men and Labourers , who go under the Name of Burgundians , thereby to avoid the hatred , which the Spaniards naturally bear against the French . And such is the Spanish pride , that tho' they think it below themselves to meddle with those trifles , yet they do not think much to be a poor Centinel in some Fort or another all their life time , the honour of the Sword , and hopes of becoming in time an Officer , making them amends for what hardship they endure . Their Pride , Covetousness and rigorous proceedings make them hatefull to all such as are under their Command ; which are very unfit Qualifications for the maintaining of great Conquests . For no body is willing to be despised by Foreign Governours . Spain being mightily exhausted of Men , and therefore incapable of raising great Armies within it self , is very unfit to maintain vast Countries , for which several reasons may be given . For the Women here are not so fruitfull as in the Northern parts , which is to be attributed to the heat of the Climate , and the constitution of their spare Bodies . Those parts also which are remote from the Sea-shore , are not well peopled , some of these Grounds being very barren , not producing any thing for the subsistance of Mankind . Whoring also being publickly allowed of here ; a great many of them will rather make shift with a Whore than to maintain a Wife and Children . These also , who have taken upon them holy Orders , of whom there is a great number , are obliged not to marry . The Wars which they have waged against so many Nations , but especially in Italy and the Netherlands , have devoured a great many Spaniards . A vast number have transplanted themselves into America , being glad to go to a place where they may with a small beginning come to live very plentifully . Before the discovery was made of America , Ferdinand the Catholick , had at once before the City of Granada , an Army of 50000 Foot and 20000 Horse , tho' Arragon did not concern it self in that War , and Portugal and Navarre were at that time not united with Castile . At last this Country was mightily dispeopled , when Ferdinand , after the taking of Granada , and Philip III. banished a great many thousands of Jews and Marans , who could not be kept in obedience in Spain ; these settling themselves in Africa , retain to this day their hatred against the Christians , robbing their Ships in those Seas . But this is evident enough , that the Spaniards could never have made a Conquest of those vast Countries , by force of Arms , if the greatest part of them had not fallen into their Hands by easier ways .

§ . 16. The Constitution of the Spanish Countries . Concerning those Countries which are under the Jurisdiction of this Nation ; Spain is large enough in extent for the number of its Inhabitants , but it is not fertile alike in all places ; for the most remote parts from the Sea-coasts are many of them barren , not producing any thing for the subsistance of Men or Beasts : But for the most part , nearer to the Sea-side , it is very fine and fruitfull . There is abundance of Sheep here . They have also very fine Horses , but not in very great quantities , having scarce enough for their own use . This Kingdom is very well situate for Trade , having on the one side the Ocean , and on the other side , being almost surrounded by the Mediterranean , where they have most excellent Harbours . The product of their Grounds and Commodities fit for Exportation , are especially , Wooll , Silk , Wine , Oyl , Raisons , Almonds , Figs , Citrons , Rice , Soap , Iron , Salt , and such like . In former times the Spanish Gold-mines were most famous , but now-a-days , neither Gold nor Silver , as far as I know , is digged out in Spain : Some will alledge for a reason , That it is forbidden under severe penalties , to keep it as a reserve in case of a great extremity . But I am rather apt to believe , That those Gold-mines have been long a-goe quite exhausted by the Avarice of the Spaniards .

§ . 17. The Spanish West Indies . The greatest Revenue of Spain comes from the East Indies , from whence Gold and Silver , like Rivulets are conveyed into Spain , and from thence into the other parts of Europe . At what time , and by whom this Country , which had been so long unknown to the Europeans , was first discover'd , we have already mentioned . Tho' there are that pretend , That America was discovered in the Year 1190 , by one Madoe , Son to Owen Gesneth , a Prince in Wales , who they say , made two Voyages thither ; and having built a Fort in Florida or Virginia , or as some say , in Mexico , died in America : And this is the reason why in the Mexican Tongue abundance of British words are to be met withall ; and that the Spaniards , at their first coming into America did find the remnants of some Christian Customs among the Inhabitants : From whence some inferr , That if the first discovery of a Country , gives a good Title of Propriety to the Discoverers , England would have as good , if not a better Title to America than Spain ; but this we will leave to be decided by others . But it is not so evident , from whence Spain could claim a right of subduing that Countrey by force of Arms. For , what is alledged among other pretences , concerning the Bull of Alexander VI. wherein he did grant those Countries to Spain , this does not only seem ridiculous to us , but also to those Barbarians themselves , who have ridicul'd it , saying , The Pope must be a strange sort of a Man , who pretended to give away that which was none of his own : But let this be as it will , the Spaniards think it sufficient that they are in possession of it ; and if an exact scrutiny should be made into other matters of this nature , it would appear , that the Titles to most conquered Countries were none of the best . But some of the most conscientious Spaniards do not justifie what Cruelties , their Country-men committed in the beginning against those poor People , of whom they kill'd , without any provocation given , a great many hundred thousands ; or destroyed them by forcing them to undergo intolerable hardships , and making the rest their Slaves : Tho' afterwards Charles V. being informed of their miserable condition , ordered all the rest of the Americans to be set at liberty . But the Spaniards are not Masters of all America , but only of the middle part of it , viz. The Kingdoms of Peru and Mexico , and those vast Islands of Hispaniola , Cuba and Porto Ricco , Jamaica having been taken from them by the English . These parts of America are now-a-days inhabited by five several sorts of People : Several sorts of Inhabitants in the Spanish West Indies . The first are the Spaniards , who come thither out of Europe ; these are put in all Offices . The second are called Crioliens , who are born in America of Spanish Parents : These are never employ'd in any Office , as being ignorant of the Spanish Affairs , and too much addicted to love their native Country of America ; wherefore the King is cautious in giving them any Command , fearing , lest they should withdraw themselves from the Obedience of Spain , and set up a Government of their own ; especially , because these Crioliens bear a great hatred against the European Spaniards . For this reason also the Governours are changed every three Years , to take away the opportunity of strengthening their Interest too much ; who after their return into Spain are made Members of the Council for the Indies , as being esteemed the most proper to advise concerning the preservation of that Country . The third sort are called Metiffs , who are born of a Spanish Father and an Indian Mother , are in no esteem among them . Those who are brought forth of the marriage of a Spaniard with a Metiff , or of a Metiff and a Spanish Woman , are called Quatralvos , as having three parts of a Spaniard , and one of an Indian : But such as are born of a Metiff and an Indian Woman , or of an Indian Man and a Metiffic are called Tresalvos , as having three parts of an Indian and one of a Spaniard . The fourth sort are the remnants of the ancient Inhabitants , of whom a great many are to be met with , especially in the Kingdoms of Peru and Mexico , who are not so Barbarous as some may imagine , there having been found among them such excellent Laws and Constitutions as would make some Europeans blush . The fifth sort are the Moores , or , as the Spaniards call them , Negroes , who being bought in Africa are sent thither to do all sorts of drudgery . These are generally very handy , but very perfidious and refractary , wherefore they must always be kept under a strict hand . Such as are born of a Negro and an Indian Woman are called Mulats : Yet is that part of America , considering its bigness , not very well stock'd with People , since the Spaniards did in a most cruel manner root out the most of its ancient Inhabitants : And if I remember well , Hieronymus Benzonus says , That all the Cities in America , which are inhabited by the Spaniards , joined together , were scarce to be compared , for number of People , with the Suburbs of Milan : Yet there are some who talk largely concerning Mexico , viz. That it has betwixt 30 and 40000 Spanish Citizens , who are most of them very wealthy , so that it is reported , there are 18000 Coaches kept in that City . The Spaniards are not easily to be beaten out of America ; because most places which are in their possession , are hard to come at , and it is very difficult to transport such a number of Souldiers out of Europe , as can be sufficient to attack any of these places : Besides this , the great difference of the Climate , and Diet could not but occasion mortal sicknesses among them : But in Peru , especially , they are very well settled , there being scarce any access by Land , and by Sea you are obliged to go round the South and remotest parts of America , or else to come from the East Indies ; both which are such long Sea-voyages , which an Army can scarce undergo without running the hazard of being destroy'd by Sickness . Concerning the Riches of America , Riches of America . 't is true , the Spaniards at their first coming thither did find no coined Gold or Silver , that being unknown in those days to the Inhabitants ; but an inconceivable quantity of uncoined Gold and Silver , and abundance of Gold and Silver Vessels made without Iron Tools , all which the Spaniards carry'd into Spain , except what the Seas swallowed up in their Voyages , which was very considerable : But now-a-days those Rivers which formerly used to carry a Golden Sand , are most exhausted ; and what is found there now is all dug up out of the Mines ; especially the Silver Mines of Porosi in Peru , do afford an incredible quantity of Silver , which is yearly , together with some other Commodities , transported in a Fleet into Spain : Nevertheless a great part of this Silver belonging to Italian , French , English and Dutch Merchants , the least part of it remains in Spain ; so that the Spaniards keep the Cow , but others have the Milk : Wherefore , when the French and Spanish Ambassadours at Rome quarrel'd about Precedency , 1563. and the latter , to represent his Master's Greatness , spoke very largely of the vast Riches of America , the Frenchman answered , That all Europe , but especially Spain , had been a considerable loser by them : The Spaniards having employed themselves in searching after the Treasures of America , were thereby become idle , and had dispeopled their own Country . The King of Spain trusting to his great Riches , had begun unnecessary Wars . Spain being the fountain from whence vast Riches were derived to other Nations , did receive the least benefit of all by them , since those Countries that furnish'd Spain with Souldiers , and other Commodities did draw those Riches to themselves . Formerly there were also Emeraulds in America , and Pearls were found , but that Stock is long since , by the Avarice of the Spaniards , quite exhausted . There is besides this , a great quantity of Commodities in America , which are used in Physick and Dying Colours . There is also great quantities of Sugars and Hides , as appears in that in the Year 1587 the Spainsh Fleet transported 35444 Hides from St. Domingo , and 64350 from New Spain : For the Oxen and Cows , which were first transported from Spain into America , are grown so numerous , that they shoot them for their Hides sake only , throwing away the Flesh , which is scarce eatable . And as America is the best Appendix of the Spanish Kingdom , so the Spaniards take all imaginable care to prevent its being separated from Spain . They make , among other things , use of this Artifice , That they will not allow any Manufactory to be set up in America , so that the Inhabitants cannot be without the European Commodities , which they do not suffer to be transported thither in any other Ships but their own .

§ . 18. Besides this , The Canary Islands . the Canary Islands are in the possession of the Spaniards , from whence are exported great quantities of Sugar and Wine , it is credibly reported , That England alone transports above 13000 Pipes of Canary , at 20 l. per Pipe . The Island of Sardinia also belongs to the Spaniards , Sardinia . which Isle is pretty large , but not very rich , its Inhabitants being for the most part Barbarians . Sicily . The Isle of Sicily is of much greater value , from whence great quantities of Corn and Silk are to be exported ; but the Inhabitants are an ill sort of People , who must be kept under , according to the old Proverb , Insulani quidem mali , Siculi autom pessimi . Unto Sicily does belong the Isles of Maltha and Goza , which was given in Fief from Charles V. to the Order of the Knights of Rhodes . Spain also has a great part of Italy in its possession , Naples . viz. The Kingdom of Naples , who 's Capital City is scarce bridled by three Castles . The Sovereignty of Siena , and a great many strong Sea-ports , and the Sea-coasts of Tuscany , viz. Orbitello , Porto Hercule , Telamone , Monte Argentario , Porto Longone , and the Castle of Piombino ; besides that noble Dukedom of Milan , Milan . which is the Paradise of Italy , as Italy is commonly called the Paradise of Europe : They have also the Harbour of Final upon the Genouese Coast . In the City of Milan , Trade and Manufactory flourishes extreamly , and this Dukedom is much valued by the Spaniards , because they have thereby a convenient Correspondence with the House of Austria . As long as Burgundy and the Netherlands were united , The Netherlands . they might be compared to a Kingdom ; but now Burgundy is lost , the seven united Provinces have separated themselves from the rest of the Netherlands , and France has conquered a great part of the remainder . And tho' in the Spanish Netherlands there are very fair and strong Cities left , yet nevertheless it seems , that the greatest benefit which Spain receives from them amounts to this , That by them the French Arms are diverted from the other Spanish Territories , that they commonly draw the Seat of War thither , and serve to take off the edge of the French Fury . In the East Indies the Philippine Islands belong to the Spaniards , The Philippine Islands . whose Capital City being Manilla , was taken by them in the Year 1565 : but these Islands are so inconsiderable , that it has been often under debate , whether it were not most convenient to abandon them : Yet some Indian Commodities , which from several places , and especially from China are brought to Manilla , are from thence transported to New-Spain and Mexico , whereby there is kept a constant Communication betwixt the Spanish West and East Indies .

§ . 19. From what has been said it is evident , Strength and Weakness of Spain . that Spain is a potent Kingdom , which has under its Jurisdiction , rich and fair Countries , abounding with all Necessaries , not only sufficient for the use of its Inhabitants , but also affording a great overplus for Exportation . The Spaniards also do not want Wisdom in managing their State Affairs , nor Valour to carry on a War : Nevertheless this vast Kingdom has its Infirmities , which have brought it so low , that it is scarce able to stand upon its own Legs : Among those is to be esteemed one , the want of Inhabitants in Spain , there being not a sufficient number both to keep in obedience such great Provinces , and at the same time to make Head against a potent Enemy ; which want is not easily to be repaired out of those Countries which are under their subjection , since it is the Interest of Spain , rather to restrain the Courage of these Inhabitants , for fear they should one time or another take Heart , and shake off the Spanish Yoak . And whenever they raise some Souldier in these Provinces , they cannot trust them with the defence of their Native Country , but are obliged to disperse them , by sending them into other Parts , under the Command only of Spaniards : Spain therefore is scarce able to raise within it self , a sufficient number of Souldiers for the Guard and Defence of its frontier places : Wherefore , whenever Spain happens to have War with other Nations , it is obliged to make use of Foreign Souldiers , and to raise those , is not only very chargeable but also the King is not so well assured of their Faith , as of that of his own Subjects . The want of Inhabitants is also one reason , why Spain cannot now-a-days keep a considerable Fleet at Sea , which nevertheless is extreamly necessary to support the Monarchy of that Kingdom . Another weakness is , That the Spanish Provinces are mightily dis-joined , they being divided by vast Seas and Countries : These therefore cannot be maintained and governed without great difficulty ; for the Governours of the Provinces being remote from the sight of the Prince , he cannot take so exact an account of their Actions ; and the oppressed Subjects want often opportunity to make their Complaints to the King ; besides that , Men and Money are with great charge and danger sent out of Spain into these Provinces , without hopes of ever returning into the Kingdom . Their Strength cannot be kept together , as being obliged to divide their Forces . The more disjoined these Provinces are , the more frontier Garrisons are to be maintained ; all which may be saved in a Kingdom , whose parts are not so much dis-joined . They are also liable to being attack'd in a great many places at once , one Province not being able to assist another : Besides this , America being the Treasury of Spain , is parted from it by the vast Ocean , whereby their Silver Fleets are subject to the hazard of the Seas and Pyrates . And if it happens that such a Fleet is lost , the whole Government must needs suffer extreamly by the want of it , the Inhabitants of Spain being so exhausted , as not to be able to raise sufficient Summs to supply the Publick Necessities . The Spaniards are also mighty deficient in regulating their West India Trade , which is so ill managed , that the greatest part of those Riches are conveyed to other Nations , whereby they are empoured to chastise Spain with its own Money . After the death of Philip II. it has also proved very prejudicial to Spain , that by the carelessness of the succeeding Kings , and during the long Minority of this present , the Nobles have so increased their Power , that they are now very backward in duely assisting the King , and by impoverishing the King and Commonalty have got all the Riches to themselves . It is also a common Disease in all Governments , where the Popish Religion has got the upper hand , That the Popish Clergy is very rich and potent , and yet pretends , by a Divine Right , to be exempted from all publick burdens , except that some of them in the utmost extremity vouchsafe to contribute some small portion for the defence of the whole , but that not without consent of the Pope : Yet the King of Spain has that Prerogative , which he obtained from Pope Hadrian IV. that he has the disposal of all the chief Church Benefices in his Kingdom ; and he is also Head and Master of all the Ecclesiastical Orders of Knighthood in Spain . And because the Kings of Spain have hitherto pretended to be the most zealous Protectours of the Papal Chair and Religion , they have thereby so obliged the Zealots of the Roman Catholick Religion , and especially the Jesuits , that these have always been endeavouring to promote the Interest of Spain .

§ . 20. Lastly , In what condition Spain is in , in reference to its Neighbours , and especially as to Barbary . It is also worth our observation , how Spain does behave it self in relation to its Neighbours , and what Good or Evil it may again expect from them . Spain therefore is opposite to the Coast of Barbary , having also several Forts on that side , viz. Pegnon de Velez , Oran , Arzilla , and would be better if they had also Algiers and Tunis . From hence Spain need not fear any thing now , since it has quite freed it self from the very Remnants of the Moors : But the Pyracies committted by those Corsaires is not so hurtfull to Spain , as to other Nations , who traffique with Spain , Italy or Turky ; for the Spaniards seldom export their own Commodities into the other parts of Europe , but these are exported by other Nations . Turky . The Turks seem to be pretty near to the Islands of Sicily and Sardinia , and to the Kingdom of Naples : Yet are they not much feared by the Spaniards ; the Sea which lies betwixt them being an obstacle against making a Descent with a considerable Army in any of those Parts ; and if an Army should be landed , its Provisions , which must come by Sea , might easily be cut off : For in such a case all the States of Italy would be obliged to side with the Spaniards to keep this cruel Enemy from their Borders , and their Naval Strength joined together , much surpasses the Turks in every respect . Italian States . From the Italian States , the Spaniards have little to fear , it being a maxim with them , to preserve the Peace of Italy , thereby to take away all opportunity from France to get a footing in Italy , which is also a general maxim among all the States of Italy : Nevertheless this is most certain , That if Spain should endeavour to encroach upon the rest of the Italian States , they would unanimously oppose it ; and if they should find themselves too weak to oppose their Designs , they might be easily wrought upon to call France to their aid . The Pope . The Pope , perhaps , might be willing enough to be Master of the Kingdom of Naples , Spain holding the same in Fief of the Papal Chair , and thereby the Popes might have a fresh opportunity to enrich their Kindred : But the Pope wants Power to execute such a Design , and the rest of the States of Italy would not be forward to see so considerable a Country added to the Ecclesiastical State ; and the Pope's Kindred are more for gathering of Riches out of the present Ecclesiastical Revenues , than to bestow the same upon an uncertain War . On the other side , Spain having found it very beneficial for its Interest , to pretend to the chief Protectorship of the Roman Religion , and that the Pope's good or bad Inclinations towards it , may either prove advantageous or disadvantageous , Spain has always endeavoured by all means to keep fair with the Popes . France , on the contrary , having taken part with the Protestants , whom Spain and the House of Austria have sought to oppress , has demonstrated sufficiently to the Roman Court , that it is not so fond of that Religion , as to neglect an opportunity to enrich himself with the Possessions of the Protestants , and to make way for attaining to the so long projected Design of the Universal Monarchy ; which done , he might easily make the Pope his Chaplain : Wherefore the chief aim of the wisest Popes has been , to keep the Power of Spain and France in an equal Balance , this being the most proper method to keep up the Authority and provide for the Security of the Popedom . It being the principal maxim of the Venetians , Venice . to reserve their Liberty and State , by maintaining the Peace of Italy , Spain has no reason to be jealous of them as long as it undertakes nothing against them . It is also the Interest , as well of them as of all the other Italian States , that the Spaniards remain in possession of Milan , for fear , if France should become Master of this Dukedom , it might thereby be put in a way to conquer all the rest of Italy . On the other side , if Spain should shew the least Inclination to undertake any thing against the Liberty of Italy , it cannot expect , but that the Venetians , if not by an open War , at least , by their Counsels and Money would oppose it : For the rest , this State endeavours to remain Neuter betwixt France and Spain , and to keep fair with both of them , as long as they do not act against their Interest ; Genoua is of great consequence to the Spaniards , Genouae . from which , depends in a great measure , the Security and Preservation of the Milaneze : Wherefore , when Charles V. could not effect his Intention of building a Castle ( being opposed therein by Andreas Doria ) whereby he intended to make the Genoueses dance after his Pipe , the Spaniards found out another way to make them dependent on their Interest , by borrowing vast Summs of Money from the Genoueses upon the security of the King's Revenues in Spain . Besides this , they are possess'd of the Harbour of Final on the Coast of Genoua , whereby they have taken away the power from them of cutting off the Correspondency betwixt Spain and Milan . Spain has great reason to give in a good Correspondency with Savoy ; Savoy . for if that Prince should side with France against it , the Milaneze would be in eminent danger of being lost . But because it would be very pernicious for Savoy , if the King of France should become Master of Milan , since Savoy would be then surrounded on all sides by the French , it is easie for Spain to maintain a good Correspondency with Savoy . Florence and the rest of the Italian Princes have all the reason to be cautious how to offend Spain , yet , as much as in them lies , they would scarce suffer Spain to encroach upon any of them . It is also of consequence to the Spaniards to live in friendship with the Suiss , The Suiss . partly because they must make use of such Souldiers as are listed among them ; partly because they may be very serviceable in preserving the Milaneze ; and their Friendship is best preserved by Money . But , because the Suiss are of several Religions , Spain is in greater Authority with the Roman Catholick Cantons , but France with the Protestant Cantons , which being the most potent , yet have , either cajolled by fair Words , or Money , or out of Fear , conniv'd at the Frenches becoming Masters of the County of Burgundy in the last War , whereas formerly they used to take effectual care for its preservation . Holland . The Hollanders were before the Peace of Munster the most pernicious Enemies to Spain ; but since the Conclusion of that Peace there is no cause that Spain should fear any thing from them , since I do not see any reason , why these should attack Spain , or endeavour to take any thing from them , having enough to do to maintain what they have already got . And , if they should be tempted to attempt any thing against the West Indies , they would not only meet with great resistance from the Spaniards there , but also France and England would not easily suffer , that both the East and West Indies , the two Fountains from whence such vast Riches are derived , should be in possession of the Dutch : And the Dutch , as for their own Interests , obliged to take care , that France , by swallowing up the rest of the Netherlands , may not become their next Neighbour on the Land , or that it should obtain any considerable advantage against Spain . German● . The Power of Germany Spain may consider as its own , as far as the same depends on the House of Austria . And it is not long ago , since the States of Germany were persuaded to take upon them afresh the Guaranty of the Circle of Burgundy ; whereby Spain hoped to have united its Interest with that of the German Empire against France ; since , whenever a War happens betwixt these two Crowns , it is scarce possible , that this Circle should escape untouch'd , it being the most convenient place where they may attack one another with vigour . England . England is capable of doing most damage to the Spaniards at Sea , and especially in the West Indies : But England , in all likelyhood , would be no great gainer by it , since the English have a vast Trade with the Spanish Sea-ports , and their Trade in the Levant would suffer extreamly from the Spanish Privateers ; but also Holland could not look with a good Eye upon these Conquests of the English . Portugal . Portugal , by it self , cannot much hurt Spain , but in conjunction with another Enemy , it is capable of making a considerable Diversion at home . But the Portugueses could not propose any considerable Advantages to themselves thereby ; and it might easily happen , that Holland siding with Spain might take from hence an opportunity to drive the Portugueses quite out of the East Indies . The King of France , France . therefore , is the capital and most formidable Enemy to Spain , who wanting not Power , not only longs to devour the rest of the Netherlands , but also aims at the Conquest of other parts of Spain . But if the old Maxims of Policy are not grown quite out of date , it is to be hoped , that all who have any Interest in the preservation of Spain , will with all their power endeavour to prevent , that the ruin of Spain , the Liberty and Possessions of all the States in Europe may not depend on the Pleasure and Will of one single person . What may be the consequence of the Extinction of the Royal Family . But what Revolution may happen in Spain if the present Royal Family , which has no Heirs yet , should fail , is beyond Human Understanding to determine or foresee ; because it is to be feared , that upon such an occasion , not only France would do its utmost to obtain it , but also , because several States which were annexed to Spain , by the Royal Family , might take an opportunity to withdraw themselves from the same .

CHAP. III. Of Portugal .

§ . 1. POrtugal , The Origin of the Kingdom of Portugal . which comprehends the greatest part of that Province which the Romans called Lusitania , fell , with the rest of Spain , under the last Gothick King Roderick , into the Hands of the Moors , who were in possession of it for a long time ; but in the Year 1093 , Alfonsus VI. King of Castile and Le●n , arming himself with all his Power to attack the Moors ; and craving also the Assistance of Foreign Princes , among others ; also , came one Henry , to signalize himself in this War , whose Pedigree is variously related by the Historians . For some will have him descended out of the House of Burgundy , and have made him a younger Son of Robert Duke of Burgundy , whose Father was Robert King of France , Son of Hugh Capet . Others derive his Pedigree from the House of Loraine , alledging , That the reason of his being called a Burgundian was , because he was born at Besanson . Henry Earl of Portugal . To this Henry , King Alfonsus VI. gave in marriage his natural Daughter Theresia , as a reward of his Valour , giving unto him for a Dowry , under the Title of an Earldom , all that part of Portugal which was then in the possession of the Christians ; which comprehended that part of the Country , where are the Cities of Braga , Coimbria , Visco , Lamego , and Porto , as also that tract of Ground which is now called Tralos Montes , granting to him also a power to conquer the rest of that Country , as far as to the River of Guadiana , and to keep it under his Jurisdiction ; yet with these conditions , That he should be a Vassal of Spain , repair to the Dyets of that Kingdom , and in case of a War , be obliged to serve with 300 Horse . Henry died in the Year 1112 , Alfonsus I. King of Portugal . leaving a Son whose name was Alfonsus , being then very young : His Inheritance was , during his Minority , usurp'd by Ferdinand Potz , Count of Trastamara , his Father-in-law , he having married his Mother . But as soon as he was grown up , he took up Arms against his Father-in-law , beat him out of Portugal , but his Mother he put in Prison ; who calling to her aid Alfonsus VII . he promised to dis-inherit her Son , and to give him all Portugal . But Alfonsus of Portugal defeated the Castilians in a Battel , by which Victory he pretended to have freed himself from the Spanish Subjection . 1126. This Alfonsus undertook an Expedition against King Ismar , 1139. who had his Kingdom on the other side of the River Tajo , who being joined by the Forces of four other petty Moorish Kings , drew out against him . Alfonsus was then in his Camp near Cabebas des Reyes proclaimed King , thereby to animate his Souldiers ; and get a most signal Victory , The Origin of the five Shields in the Arms of Portugal . taking the five Standards of those Kings , whence he put five Shields in the Arms of Portugal , and retained ever after the Title of King . He took afterwards a great many Cities from the Moors ; and among the rest , with the assistance of the Netherland Fleet the City of Lisbon in the Year 1147. 1179. This Alfonsus was taken Prisoner near Badajoz , by Ferdinand King of Egypt , who gave him his Freedom without any other Ransom , than that he was to restore to him some Cities , which he had taken from him in Gallicia . After he had reigned very gloriously , and greatly enlarged the Limits of his Kingdom , 1185. he died in the 91st Year of his Age.

§ . 2. Him succeeded his Son Sanctius , Sanctius I. who built a great many Cities , and fill'd them with Inhabitants . He took from the Moors the City of Selva , being assisted in that Expedition , by a Fleet sent out of the Netherlands to the Holy Land . He was , during his whole Reign , always in action with the Moors , and died in the Year 1212. Alfonsus II. After him reigned his Son Alfonsus sirnamed Crassus , who did nothing worth mentioning , but that , with the help of the Netherlanders , who went to the Holy Land , he took from the Moors the City of Alcassar . He died in the Year 1223. His Son Sanctius , Sanctius II. sirnamed Capellus , succeeded him ; who being very careless , and ruled by his Wife , was excluded from the Administration of the Government by the Portugueses , who conferr'd it on Alfonsus his Brother . Sanctius died an Exile in Toledo . The Portugueses have made this observation concerning him , 1246. that he was the only Portuguese King who died without leaving either Legitimate Children or Bastards behind him . Alfonsus III. Alfonsus , the Brother of Sanctius , parted from his Lady Mathildis , Countess of Boulogne , she being somewhat Ancient and Barren , and married Beatrice , Daughter to Alfonsus X. King of Castile , with whom he had for a Dowry the County of Algarbia ; but the Pope being dissatisfy'd with this Divorce , excommunicated both him and the whole Kingdom . He reigned very laudably , and united a great many Cities to his Kingdom , and died in the Year 1279. The extraordinary Virtues of his Son Dionysius , Dionysius . especially , Justice , Liberality and Constancy , are highly extoll'd by the Portugueses : He having also adorn'd the Kingdom with a great many publick Buildings , among which is the Academy of Conimbria , first founded by him . There is an old Proverb concerning him , used among the Portugueses , El Rey D. Denys , qui fiz quanto quin : King Dionysius , who did whatsoever he pleased . He died in the Year 1325 ; his Son . Alfonsus IV. Alfonsus IV. sirnamed the Brave , was very glorious for his Atchievements both in Peace and War ; but he banished his Bastard Brother , who was greatly beloved both by his Father and the People ; and caused D. Agnes de Castro , a very beautiful Lady , who was without his consent married to his Son Pieter , barbarously to be murthered ; which so exasperated Pieter , that he taking up Arms against the Father , did considerable mischief , till at last the business was composed . Pieter . He died in the Year 1357. His Son Pieter was commonly called the Cruel , tho' some will have this rather to have been spoken to his praise , as having been an exact observer of Justice , never sparing any Offender . He died in the Year 1368. His Son Ferdinand contended with Henry the Bastard , Ferdinand . who had murthered his Brother Pieter , sirnamed the Cruel , King of Castile , about the Kingdom of Castile , because his Mother Beatrice had been Daughter of Sanctius IV. King of Castile ; and a great many of the Nobility and some Cities of that Kingdom declaring for him , he waged War against the forementioned Henry . But he being too strong for him , he could not maintain his Pretensions , but was obliged to make Peace . 1373. However the War broke out afresh again betwixt them , because Ferdinand had protected some who were banished out of Castile for High Treason , neither would , upon demand , surrender them . To revenge this , Henry made an inrode into Portugal , and finding no resistance , over-ran the greatest part of the Country . After the death of Henry , Ferdinand made a Peace with his Son John , but the same was soon violated again by the Portugueses , who encouraged the Duke of Lancaster , that married Constantia Daughter of Pieter King of Castile , to pretend to the Crown of Castile : He came with a good Army into Portugal ; but the English being quickly grown weary of the War in Spain , and living very disorderly in Portugal , a Peace was concluded on both sides . At last Ferdinand married his Daughter Beatrice to John of Castile , under condition , that such Children as were born of their Bodies , should succeed in the Kingdom of Portugal ; which was afterwards the occasion of bloody Wars . This Ferdinand , who by his frequent Wars had proved very pernicious to Portugal , died in the Year 1383 , being the last of the true Race of the Kings of Portugal .

§ . 3. After the death of Ferdinand great Troubles arose in Portugal , Interregnum . most of the Portugueses not being able to brook living under the Subjection of the Castilians , whom they mortally hated . It was , 't is true , agreed on in the Articles of Marriage made betwixt the King of Castile and Beatrice Daughter of Ferdinand , That her Mother Eleonora should have the Administration of the Government in Portugal , till such Children as should be born of this Marriage should be of age : But this Eleonora , leaving all to the management of the Count of Ancira , her much suspected Favourite , she drew upon her self the hatred of the Portugueses . John , therefore , natural Son of Pieter King of Portugal , privately murther'd him , whereby he got both the Favour of the People , and encreased the hatred against the Queen Dowager : But some of the Portugueses being much dissatisfy'd at these proceedings , begg'd the King of Castile , Some call in the King of Castile . to take upon him the Crown of Portugal ; which he might in all likelyhood have obtained , if he had been quick enough , either by fair means or by force , to have put himself into full possession of the same : But he being uncertain in his Resolutions , gave by his delays , time and opportunity to the adverse Party to strengthen it self . Wherefore , he coming without an Army into Portugal , his Mother-in-law resign'd to him the Government , but he found but an indifferent Reception among the Portugueses , they being very averse to him because he used very rarely to speak or converse with them : Nevertheless a great many of the Nobility and some Cities did side with him ; but most out of a hatred to the Castilians , chose for their Leader John the Bastard , a wise and brave Man , and much belov'd by the People . The Castilians thereupon besieged Lisbon , but their Army being for the most part destroyed by the Plague , they were obliged to leave it without having got any advantage . 1385. In the Year next following , the Portugueses declar'd this John their King , John the Bastard . who very courageously attack'd those places , which had declared for the Castilians , and subdued the greatest part of them . The Castilians then entred with an Army into Portugal , but were entirely routed by this new King near Aliubarotta , which Victory is yearly celebrated to this day among the Portugueses . After this Battel , all the rest of the Cities did without more adoe surrender themselves to the new King . The Portugueses also calling unto their aid , the Duke of Lancaster , unto whom they had promised the Crown of Castile , they enter'd into that Kingdom with an Army : But the English having suffer'd extreamly by Sickness , the Duke of Lancaster thought it most convenient to conclude a Peace with the Castilians , whereupon it was agreed , That the Son of the King of Castile should marry his only Daughter Catharine , which he had by Constantia , Daughter to Pieter King of Castile . A Truce was also made betwixt Portugal and Castile at that time ; but the War soon breaking out again , 1399. at last , an everlasting Peace was concluded betwixt both Kingdoms ; so that John had the good fortune to maintain himself in the possession of the Crown of Portugal , and reign'd with great applause . After he was quietly settled in the Throne , he undertook an Expedition into Africa , and took the City Ceuta ; whose Son also first found out the Isle of Madera . 1415. This King died in the Year 1433 , 1420. and left a Memory that is to this day dear to the Portugueses .

§ . 4. Edward . His Son Edward was a very Virtuous Prince , but did not reign long ; for at that time , Portugal being over-run with the Plague , he got the Infection by a Letter , and died in the Year 1438. During his Reign , his Brothers undertook a most unfortunate Expedition into Africa , where being themselves taken Prisoners before Tangier , they promised to restore to the Moors Ceuta for a Ransom , leaving Don Ferdinand as a Hostage behind them . But the States of Portugal refusing to stand to the Contract , the Hostage was forc'd to end his days in Prison . Alfonsus V. Alfonsus , Son to this Edward , was but six years old when his Father died , whose Tuition was committed , by his Father's last Will , to his Mother . But the States , refusing to submit themselves to the Government of a Foreign Woman , conferr'd the Administration of the Kingdom on Don Pedro Duke of Conimbria , Brother to King Edward , but he received a very slender Recompence for his Services ; for being falsely accused before the new King , he was slain as he was going with some Troops to the King to justifie himself . Alfonsus V. was else a very good Souldier and a brave Prince , under whose Reign the Portugueses took several places on the Coast of Africa , viz. Tangier , Arcilla , Alcassar , and some others . Good store of Gold was also transported out of Guinea into Portugal , which he employ'd in coining of Cruisadoes . After this Alfonsus had great contests with Ferdinand the Catholick and Isabella , there being a promise of marriage made betwixt him and Johanna , the supposed Daughter of Henry IV. King of Castile ; but , as it was reported , begotten in Adultery ; but the Marriage was not consummated , she being Alfonsus's Sister's Daughter , tho' , at last , the Pope gave his Dispensation , which he had refused at first . Alfonsus , under this pretence , took upon himself the Title and Arms of Castile , surprising several Cities , assisted by some of the Nobility of Castile , who sided with him : Lewis XI . also , King of France , sent him some Auxiliaries , but these were not sufficient to enable him to undertake any thing of moment : Wherefore , Ferdinand retaking all the places from the Portugueses , routed them also near Toro and near Albuhera ; 1476. so that Alfonsus despairing of obtaining his Ends , 1479. concluded a Peace with Ferdinand , wherein he renounced both Castile and the Bride Johanna , she being promised in marriage to John Son of Ferdinand , who was then a Child : But she , perceiving that this was only done to elude her , 1479. went into a Nunnery . Portugal sustained considerable losses in this War , and Alfonsus died in the Year 1481 , as it is supposed , out of Grief , because he had lost the hopes of his Bride and the Crown of Castile . John II. Him succeeded his Son John II. against whom a most horrid Conspiracy was discovered , for which Ferdinand Duke of Braganza , and James Duke of Visco lost their lives , the latter being kill'd by the King 's own Hand . This King John was the first , who found out the way to sail into the East Indies , A Project of sailing to the East Indies . having not only ordered an exact Survey to be made of the African Coast , as far as to the Cape of good hope , but also sent some by Land into the East Indies , to inform themselves concerning the Condition of those Countries . He built also the Castle of Mina on the Coast of Guinea : But before this intended Voyage to the East Indies could be begun , this King died in the Year 1495 , leaving no Heirs behind him .

§ . 5. Emanuel . John II. was succeeded by his Cousin Emanuel , Son of Ferdinand Duke of Visco , Grandchild of King Edward . With him contended for the Succession the Emperour Maximilian , whose Mother Eleonora was a Daughter of King Edward : But the Portugueses declared for Emanuel , who for his extraordinary Qualifications both of Body and Mind , was extreamly beloved by them . He , the better to establish himself at home , married Isabella , eldest Daughter of Ferdinand the Catholick , out of which marriage a young Prince was born , whose Name was Michael , who , if he had lived , would have been Heir to all the Spanish Kingdoms , Moors and Jews banish'd out of Portugal . except that of Navarre . To please his Bride , he , by his Proclamation , banish'd all the Jews and Moors out of Portugal by a prefix'd time , under penalty , for all such as should stay behind , to be made Slaves for ever . Whereupon the Moors immediately retir'd into Africa ; but from the Jews they took their Children which were under the Age of fourteen , and baptized them against their Will : And as for the old ones , they were so plagued and vexed every where , and stopp'd or hinder'd in their Journeys , that most , to be rid of these Vexations , and to avoid the danger of Slavery , were baptized , retaining , nevertheless , in their Minds , their ancient Superstition : Under the Reign of this King , Portugal arrived to the highest pitch of its Greatness , The first Sea-voyage into the East Indies . the design of the East-India Voyage round Africa , which was projected by the former King , being now accomplish'd by Vascus de Gama , 1497. who first arrived at Calicut . As soon as the Portugueses began to draw into their Country the Trade of Spices , they were opposed , especially by the Sultan of Egypt , because formerly these Commodities used to be conveyed through Egypt to Venice , and from thence to other parts of Europe , from which both these Countries drew vast Profit . Wherefore the Venetians stirred up the Sultan , The reason why the Venetians opposed the Portugueses settling themselves there . sending him great stores of Metal to make Cannons of , and Shipwrights to build Ships ; by which means they hoped to drive the Portugueses out of the Indies : But the Portugueses , who did not much trust the Barbarian Kings of the Indies , began to build Forts and strong Holds in the most convenient places ; wherein they met with little opposition , partly because the Indians were terrify'd by the vastness of the Ships , and the thunder of the Cannons of the Europeans ; partly because they were not aware of what consequence they might prove one day against them . The Progress of the Duke ●f Albuquerque in the East Indies . The Duke of Albuquerque , especially , did mightily advance the Power of the Portugueses in the Indies , who took the Cities of Ormuz , Malacca , Cochin and Goa ; the latter of which is the place of Residence of the Portuguese Governour in the Indies . And thus the Portugueses engrossed to themselves the whole Trade and Commerce of Africa and the remotest parts of Asia , having possessed themselves of all the most commodious Ports and Places not only on the Western side of Africa , in Mauritania , Guinea , Congo , Angola , in the Isle of St. Thomas , and some others , but also on the East side , in Manzambique , Melinde , Mombazo , Zafala , and from the mouth of the Red Sea , as far as Japan ; from whence incredible Riches were conveyed into Portugal . Besides all this did Pieter Alvanus Capralis , or as some will have it Americus Vesputius discover'd the Country of Brasile in America , The discovery of Brasil in America . whither the Portugueses sent 1500 several Colonies . And under the Reign of this King Emanuel , who died in the Year 1521 , Portugal increased to that degree , that his Reign was called , The Golden Age. John III. After him reigned his Son John III. under whose Reign Portugal continued in the same flourishing condition . The Jesuites sent to the Indies . This King sent Francis Xavier , and some other Jesuites into the East Indies , who were to settle the Christian Religion among the Barbarians . The Jesuites commonly boast of great numbers of Heathens converted by them , but whether they deserve an intire credit in this , or whether , perhaps , a great many of these have not rather taken upon them the Name , than the Faith of Christians , those are best able to judge , who have been conversant in those places . He died in the Year 1557.

§ . 6. Sebastian . John III. had for his Successour his Grandson Sebastian , a Child of three Years of age , whose Tuition was committed to the Cardinal Henry , his Uncle , because his Grandmother was not willing to take upon her the burthen of the Government . Through the over-forwardness of this young Prince , Portugal receiv'd such a blow , that it fell from the Pinacle of its Greatness : For some of his Court Favourites did put this magnanimous and ambitious Prince , upon such Enterprizes as were far surpassing both his Age and Power , and were in no ways suitable to the present juncture of Affairs , so that his whole Mind was bent upon Warlike Exploits , and how by Martial Exercises , to revive the ancient Valour of his Subjects , which by Peace and Plenty , having been more addicted to Commerce , was of late much decay'd . He undertook , therefore , an Expedition into the next adjacent parts of Africa , intending , by light Skirmishes to try his Enemies . He proposed , afterwards , a Voyage into the Indies , but his Council opposing it , it was agreed upon , that he should undertake an Expedition into Africa , an occasion presenting it self at that time ; for that Muley Mahomet , King of Morocco , being banish'd by his Uncle Muley Malucco , craved the assistance of King Sebastian : Wherefore , notwithstanding the good Counsels of Philip King of Spain , His fatal Expedition into Africa . and others , who dissuaded him from it , he in person , with a great but unexercised Army enter'd Africa , and advancing , against all Reason , too far into the Country , was obliged , in a disadvantageous place , to fight against a much more numerous Army ; wherefore the success of the Battel was answerable to the rash attempt ; his Army , wherein was the flower of the Nobility of Portugal , being miserably routed , and the Souldiers all either cut to pieces or made Prisoners . This Battel is famous , because three Kings fell , viz. King Sebastian , the banish'd Muley Mahomet , and Muley Malucco , King of Morocco , who during the time of the Battel , died of a Fever . This happened in the Year 1578. Henry . Him succeeded his Uncle Henry the Cardinal , a very old Man , under whose Reign there happened nothing worth mentioning , but that perpetual contests were set on foot concerning the Succession . Wherefore , he dying in the Year 1580 , Philip II. King of Spain , thought it the most efficacious way , to dispute with the Sword in hand ; and perceiving that the Portugueses , out of that hatred which they bare to the Castilians , were inclined to Anthony Son of Lewis de Beya , natural Son to King John III. he sent the Duke d'Alba with a great Army into Portugal , who quickly chased away Anthony , and in few days became Master of the whole Kingdom , Portugal united to Spain . all being forced soon to submit , except the Isle of Tercera , which was not reduced till after the French , who came to its relief , were beaten . As the Portugueses did not , without great reluctancy , bear the Government of the Castilians ; so this Union with Castile proved very prejudicial to them afterwards . For Philip , who was for bringing the Netherlanders again under Obedience , thought that nothing could do it more effectually , than to stop their Trade and Commerce with Spain and Portugal : For hitherto they had traded no further , being used to fetch away their Commodities from thence , and to convey them into the more Northern parts of Europe . Wherefore Philip concluded , that if this way of getting Money were once stop'd , they would quickly grow poor , and thereby be obliged to submit themselves . But this design had a quite contrary effect ; The Dutch sail to the East Indies . for the Hollanders being themselves excluded from Trade with Spain and Portugal , try'd , about the end of the latter Age , to sail to the East Indies . And as soon as , after a great many difficulties , they had once gotten footing there , they greatly impaired the Portugueses Trade , who hitherto had only managed the same , and afterwards took from them one Fort after another . 1620. And the English , with the assistance of Abbas King of Persia , forced from them the famous City of Ormutz . 1630. Nor was this all , for the Hollanders took from them a great part of Brasile , and several places on the Coast of Africa ; which the Hollanders , in all probability , would have had no reason to undertake , if Portugal had remained a Kingdom by it self , and had not been annexed to Spain .

§ . 7. But in the Year 1640 , The Portuguese shake off the Yoak of Spain . the Portugueses took an occasion to shake off the Spanish Yoak . For Philip IV. then summoned the Portuguese Nobility to assist him in the War against the Catalonians , who had rebelled against him . Being therefore armed , and finding an opportunity to consult with one another , concerning those Troubles in which Spain was involv'd at that time ; they agreed to withdraw themselves from the Subjection of Spain , The Duke of Braganz● proclaimed King . proclaiming for their King , John IV. the Duke of Braganza , who stiled himself John IV. whose Grandmother had stood in competition with Philip II. for that Crown . The Spaniards committed a gross mistake in this , that they did not in time secure the Duke , whom they knew to have a fair pretence to that Crown ; to be extreamly beloved by that Nation , and to be in possession of the fourth part of the Kingdom . The Spaniards being at that time entangled in Wars against France , Holland and Catalonia ; the Portugueses had thereby good leisure given them , to settle their Affairs . They made also a Peace with Holland , 〈◊〉 League between Portugal and Holland . by virtue of which , both Parties were to remain in possession of what they had gotten . But this Peace did not last long ; for , these places which were in the possession of the Hollanders , in Brasile , revolted to the Portugueses , which the Hollanders looking upon as done by contrivance of the Portugueses , A War breaks cut betwixt them . denounced War against them . And tho' they did not retake Brasile , yet did they take a great many other places from them in the East Indies , viz. Malacca , the places on the Coast of the Isle of Zeylon , on the Coast of Cormandel , and on the Coast of Malabar , Cochin , Canaror , Cranganor , and some others ; and if they had not clapt up a Peace with them , A Peace in 1661. they would in all likely hood have also driven them out of Goa it self . John IV. died in the Year 1656 , Alfonsus VI. leaving the Kingdom to his Son Alfonsus , who was under Age , but the Administration of the Government was in the mean time lodged with his Mother . After the Pyrenean Treaty was concluded , out of which Portugal was excluded by the Spaniards , it being besides this agreed with France , not to send any Assistances to the Portugueses , the Spaniards fell upon the Portugueses in good earnest : But these defended themselves bravely , and notwithstanding the Articles of the Pyrenean Treaty , the French King did give leave to the Earl of Schombergh , and a great many other Frenchmen to enter into the Service of the Portugueses , who routed the Spaniards in several Encounters , but more especially , near Extremos and Villa Vitiosa . 1668 ▪ At last , the French entering with a great Army into the Netherlands , the Spaniards were willing to conclude a Peace with the Portugueses , who were also glad to be once disentangled out of so tedious a War . By virtue of this Peace Spain did resign all its Pretensions upon Portugal . In the mean time Alfonsus was grown up a wild and awkward sort of a Man , as Don Pedro's Friends have represented him to the World ; who , besides this , by a Distemper which he had in his tender Age , was so disabled both in his Body and Mind , that he was neither fit to rule nor marry : Yet he taking from his Mother the Administration of Affairs upon himself ( who quickly after died ) married a Princess of Nemours , 1666. descended from the House of Savoy ; who having lived with him about sixteen Months , retired into a Monastery , desiring to be divorced from him : She alledged , That Alfonsus was not only incapable of Matrimony , but also that he had endeavoured , to have one of his Favourites get her with Child , thereby to secure the Crown to his Family . There was , besides this , so strong a Jealousie betwixt the King and his Brother Don Pedro , that the latter thought his Life to be in danger , if he did not prevent the Designs of his Brother and his Favourites : He therefore , bringing the Nobility and People over to his Party , forced Alfonsus to surrender to him the Administ●●●●on of the Kingdom , reserving for his Maintenance only the yearly Revenue of 270000 Livers , as also the Palace of Braganza , with all its Appurtenances . Don Pedro. Don Pedro would not take upon himself the Title of King , but chose rather to be called Regent of Portugal , in the name of his Brother Alfonsus , he being incapable of Administring the Government : He married also upon the desire of the Portugueses , and with the Dispensation of the Pope , his Brother's Wife . And because Alfonsus should not be in a capacity of raising any disturbances , he was under a good Guard conducted into the Island of Ter●●ra . But Don Pedro has hitherto administred the Government in peace , and to the general satisfaction of the People .

§ . 8. The Humours of the Portugueses . And to say something concerning the Genius of the Portugueses , and the Strength and the Nature of the Country . The Portugueses are not inferiour to the Spaniards in Pride and Haughtiness ; but are not esteemed so Prudent and Cautious as these , but are over-secure in Prosperity , and in time of danger rash and fool-hardy . Where they get the upper-hand they are very rigorous and cruel . They are mightily addicted to be Covetous , and love Usury , and have searched after Money in all corners of the World . Some also will have them to be very Malicious , which they say is the remnant of the Jewish Blood , which is intermingled with that of the Portuguese Nation . This Country , considering its bigness , is very populous , as is evident by the number of Portugueses , which have settled themselves in Brasile , on the Coast of Africa , and in the East Indies : Yet are they not in a capacity to raise a numerous Land Army without Foreign help , or to man out a mighty Fleet of Men of War ; but they have enough to do , to Garrison their frontier Places well , and to keep Convoys for their Merchant Ships .

§ . 9. Fruitfulness of Portugal . Concerning the Countries which belong now-a-days to Portugal . The Kingdom of Portugal , by it self considered , is neither very large nor very fruitfull , the Inhabitants living most upon such Corn as is imported : Yet is the Country full of Cities and Towns , and has a great many commodious Sea-ports . The Commodities of the growth of Portugal , fit for Exportation , are Salt , of which a great quantity is from Setubal or St. Hubes transported into the Northern Countries : As also Oyl , some Wine , and all sorts of Fruit. The other Commodities which are brought from thence they first , have from those Provinces that belong to them . The Silver Mine called Guacaldane , is said to be of the yearly value of 178 Quentoes of Silver ( each Quent being reckoned to amount to 2673 Ducats , 8 Reals , and 26 Marvedoes . ) Among those Countries that now belong to Portugal the chiefest is Brasile , Brasile , being a long tract of Land in America , extended all along the Sea side , but very narrow , and famous for the wholsomness of the Air , and its Fertility . Here abundance of Sugar is made , from whence arises the main Revenue of the Country , the Portugueses making use of the same in preserving those excellent Fruits as grow both in Portugal and Brasile . Brasile also affords Ginger , Cotton , Wooll , Indigo and Wood for the Dyers . But because the Natives of this Country are naturally lazy , who cannot by any ways be forced to hard labour , the Portugueses buy upon the Coast of Africa , and especially in Congo and Angola , Negroes , whom they use for Slaves , buying and selling them in Brasile as we do Oxen ; they are employed in all sorts of hardships and drudgery . Africa . The Trade of the Portugueses on the West side of Africa is not now of any great consequence , since the Hollanders have interfered with them ; and those places which they are possess'd of on the East side of Africa only serve to enrich their Governours . What the Hollanders have left them in the East Indies is of no small consequence to them ; The East Indies . for Goa is a very large City , where there is a great Trade among People of all Nations : But the wiser fort do not approve of the Portuguese Government in the East Indies ; the Portugueses there are given to Voluptuousness , and neglecting Military Affairs , are so presumptuous , as to imagine , that nevertheless with their haughty Carriage they can out-brave others . Hence it was that the Hollanders found it so easie to drive this Nation out of the greatest part of the Indies , which was grown hatefull to them all : Yet the Portugueses enjoy one Privilege which the Dutch have not , that they are allowed a free Trade with China , where they have the City of Macao in an Island not far distant from the Continent ; and they have understood so to mis-represent the Hollanders with the Chineses , that they , hitherto , as far as I know , they have not been able to obtain a free Commerce with China . A horrible Persecution raised on the Christians of Japan ▪ and the occasion of It. Formerly the Portugueses had a great Interest in Japan , which was chiefly procured by means of the Jesuites , who made it their business to convert the Japoneses to the Christian Religion . It is related , that above 400000 of them were baptized , not without hopes , that all the rest would at last have followed their example . But about thirty years ago , the Dutch , by their Practices and Artifices , render'd the Portugueses suspected to the Emperour of Japan , having intercepted a Letter from the Jesuits to the Pope , wherein they promised to bring , ere long , the whole Kingdom of Japan under the Obedience of the Roman See . The Hollanders interpreted this Letter in such a sense , as if the Jesuits , with the assistance of the new Converts , did intend to dethrone the Emperour ; telling him , That the Pope pretended to an Authority of disposing of Kingdoms at his pleasure , and that the King of Spain who was then Master of Portugal , was in great esteem with him . The jealous Japoneses were easily persuaded hereof , when they considered with what Respect and Kindness the Jesuits were treated by the new Christians ; those being also very ready to accept of what these good natur'd People offered them . And the Governours were sensible , and complained , that their usual Presents from the Subjects decreased daily , since the new Converts gave so much to their Priests . The Hollanders also shew'd the Emperour of Japan in a Mapp , how the Conquests of the King of Spain did extend on one side as far as Manilla , on the other side as far as Macao , so that by subduing of Japan , he would have an opportunity of uniting his Conquests . This occasioned a most horrible Persecution against the Christians , the Japoneses endeavouring by incredible Torments to overcome the Constancy of a Nation , which is naturally one of the most obstinate . Neither did they cease , till there was not one Christian left in Japan , and the Portugueses , upon pain of death , were for ever banish'd the Country . And the Hollanders , when afterwards they sent any Ships to Japan , used to forbid their Subjects , to shew the least appearance of Religious Christian Worship , but if they were ask'd , Whether they were Christians , to answer , They were not , but they were Hollanders . Lastly , To Portugal belong also the Isles called Azores , whereof Tercera , and the Isle Madera , which are tolerably fruitfull , are the principal .

§ . 10. From what hath been said , it is apparent , The Strength of Portugal . that the welfare of Portugal depends chiefly on their Commerce with the East Indies , Brasile and Africa ; whereby also it is evident enough , that the Strength and Power of Portugal in comparison of the rest of the more potent States of Europe is not to be esteemed such , as to be able to attack any of them , or gain any thing upon them . It is therefore the Interest of this Crown to take care how to preserve it self in the same condition as it is in now , and to be very cautious of engaging it self in a War with any Nation that is potent at Sea , which perhaps might undertake something against their Provinces abroad . How it stands with regard to Spain . But as for its Neighbours in particular ; Portugal is for the most part nearest unto Spain , so that it is easie for the Spaniards to enter Portugal , yet is the Power of Spain not very dreadfull to the Portugueses , partly , because the Spaniards cannot conveniently keep an Army of above 25000 Men on foot on that side , by reason of the scarcity of Provisions ; the like number the Portugueses also can bring into the Field ; partly , because Spain cannot man out a considerable Fleet of Men of War wherewith to attack the Portuguese Provinces : Besides , Portugal in case of such an attack might certainly expect to be assisted either by the French or English , who as much as in them lies , will not suffer Spain to become again Master of Portugal . To France . Neither does it appear for the Interest of Portugal , upon the Instigation of France or some other Foreign Power , to engage it self without a pressing necessity in a War with Spain , since it is not probable that it could gain any thing considerable , but would only weaken it self without the hopes of any advantage : Portugal has , in all probability , not much to fear from France , they lying at a considerable distance from one another ; besides this , the Naval Strength of France is not come , as yet , to that height , as to be in a capacity to be hurtfull to a Nation that has settled it self very securely in the East and West Indies ; and more especially , since these two Nations have not any pretensions on each other : And it rather concerns France that Portugal may stand secure against Spain and Holland . To Holland . The Hollanders have hitherto proved the most pernicious Enemies to Portugal , they being in a capacity not only to disturb their Trade on the Coast of Portugal , but also may prove very troublesom to them both in the East and West Indies : And it seems , that it would be no difficult matter for the Hollanders , by taking from the Portugueses the City of Macao , on the Coast of China , and some other places on the Coast of Malabar , quite to destroy their Trade in the East Indies . But it is probable , that , in case of a War betwixt the Portugueses and Hollanders , England would assist the former against the latter , since it has not been without great Displeasure to the English , to see what progresses the Hollanders have made in the East Indies , whereby they have acquired such vast Riches , that they have ●id defiance to England and all the rest of Europe .

CHAP. IV. Of England .

§ . 1. IN Ancient Time , The ancient Sate of England . Britainy , which was then esteemed the biggest Island of the World , was not ruled by one Prince , but divided into a great many petty States , each of them govern'd by its own King ; but this multitude of petty Princes , as it caused great Divisions among them , so it exposed them to the danger of being overcome by their Foreign Enemies . This Island was scarce known to the Greeks and Romans till Julius Caesar's time , who , after he had conquer'd the greatest part of France , undertook an Expedition into this Island , hoping , as 't is suppos'd , to meet there with great Booty and Riches . But he enter'd not very far into the Country , and after some Skirmishes with the Inhabitants , returned again without leaving a Garrison , or exacting any Contributions . After this Britainy was not attack'd again by the Romans , till under the Reign of the Emperour Claudius , who bent his Arms against it in good earnest , and the Inhabitants being divided among themselves , and not joined in a mutual defence against the common Enemy , The Romans conquer England . he , without great difficulty , conquer'd part of it . At which time Britainy was made a Roman Province , a constant Army being maintained here by the Romans , who by degrees conquered one part after another , yet not without receiving some Defeats . At last , under the Reign of Domitian , Julius Agricola marched with his victorious Army through the whole Island , and giving a signal overthrow to the Caledonians , who are now called the Scots , subdued them ; tho' the Romans could never entirely conquer the utmost parts of Britainy , being almost inaccessible . Wherefore , afterwards the Emperours Adrian and Severus , by building a Wall cross the Island from Sea to Sea , divided them from the Roman Province , hoping thereby to stop their Incursions . But the Romans never came into Ireland . After the Britains had been above 400 Years under subjection to the Romans , the Northern Nations at that time over-running the Western parts of the Roman Empire , the Romans left this Island voluntarily , being obliged to recall their Legions , which were posted in Britainy , to oppose their Enemies .

§ . 2. Britainy being thus without an Army , The Saxons come into Britainy . and besides , this , mightily exhausted in its Strength , for that the Romans had made use of their young Men in their Wars , the Picts and Scots , from their barren Country , made an Inrode into these plentifull Provinces , destroying all before them . The English , to make the better Head against them , had chosen one Vortigern for their King ; but he perceiving himself to be no ways able to resist their Power ; and Assistance being denied him from the Romans , called in the Angles , a Saxon Nation , living then in Holstein : One part of which retains that Name to this day , tho' some will have them to have been Frieslanders , others Goths ; it being certain , that the mordern Language of the Frieslanders has a great affinity with the ancient English Tongue . These Angles , under their Leaders Hengist and Horsa , coming with some thousands of Men to the assistance of the Britains , beat out the Scots . But they being mightily taken with the Fruitfulness of the Country , ●450 . resolved to subdue it , and to lay the Yoak upon the Britains , who had called them in to deliver them from it . As soon as the Britains perceived what their Intention was , they endeavour'd to drive them out of the Island ; but these taking up Arms , and calling in a great many thousands of their Country-men to their assistance , first took from the Britains the Eastern parts of the Island . And the Western parts , which were yet in the possession of the Britains , being afterwards extreamly wasted by Plague and Famine , so that the British King Cadwalladar retired into the lesser Britainy : The Saxons took hold of this opportunity , conquering all the rest of Britainy , except the Province of Wales , which being surrounded with Mountains , they were not able to subdue . This abovementioned Cadwalladar was the last King of the ancient British Race , who , perceiving that he was no ways able , any longer , to resist the Power of the Saxons , 689. retired to Rome , into a Convent . But Britainy received the Name of Anglia , or England , from the Angles .

§ . 3. These Saxons erected seven Kingdoms , The Saxon Kings in England . which however had not their beginning all at one time , but according as they had taken one part after another from the Inhabitants : At last they fell together by the ears among themselves , till one having swallowed up another , all were united into one Kingdom ; which , how it happened we will briefly relate . The first Kingdom , The Saxon Heptarchy . then , was that of Kent , which began in the Year 455 , and during the Reigns of seventeen Kings , lasted till the Year 827 , when it was subdued by the West Saxons . The second was the Kingdom of Sussex , which began in the Year 488 , and , under five Kings , lasted till the Year 601 , when it was likewise made a Province by the West Saxons . The third was that of the West Saxons , which began in the Year 519 , and lasted , under nineteen Kings , 561 Years . The Eleventh of these Kings named Ino , Peter's 〈◊〉 did order , That each Subject that was worth ten Pence , should yearly give one Penny to the Pope of Rome , which Tax was first called the King's Alms , and afterwards Peter's Pence . The fourth Kingdom was that of Essex , which began in the Year 527 , and lasted , under fourteen Kings , till the Year 808 , when it was also conquered by the West Saxons . The fifth was that of Northumberland , which began in the Year 547 , and lasted , under three and twenty Kings , till the Year 926 , when it also was brought under subjection by the West Saxons . The sixth Kingdom was that of the Mercians , which had its beginning in the Year 522 , and lasted , under twenty Kings , till the Year 724 , when it also fell into the Hands of the West Saxons . The seventh was that of the East Angles , which began in the Year 575 , and lasted , under fifteen Kings , till the Year 928 , when under its King Athelstan it was united with the rest . But after Egbert , King of the West Saxons , had either subdued the rest , or forced their Kings to acknowledge him for their Supream Head , The Kingdom of England , 818 , he and his Successours were henceforward called no more Kings of the Saxons , but of England . Under his Reign the Danes first enter'd England , Dancs first come into England . as they continued to do under the following Kings , tho' in the beginning they were at several times bravely repuls'd : Nevertheless they got footing , at last , in the Northern parts of England , where they lived for a while pretty quietly under the Protection of the Kings of England . But in the time of King Ethelred , who began his Reign in the Year 979 , the Danes made Inrodes into the Southern parts of England , forced the English to pay them great Summs of Money , ravish'd their Women , and committed such outrages , that they got the Name of Lord Danes . And tho' the English conspir'd against the Danes , 1002. and cut them all off , yet the Danish King return'd the next Year , and made prodigious havock among the English , their great Preparations which were made against the Danes , being by the Craft of the Traitor Edrick ( notwithstanding Ethelred had made him Duke of Mercia , giving him his Daughter for a Wife ) render'd ineflectual ; so that Ethelred was obliged to leave his desolate Kingdom , and to retire into Normandy . Sueno , while he was busie in plundering the Nunnery of St. Edmund , having been kill'd by a Sword which no body knew from whence it came , Ethelred return'd out of Normandy into England , and forced Canute , Sueno's Son , The Danes driven out , but return again . to retire out of England into Denmark ; but he return'd quickly with a much greater Force , and Ethelred making all imaginable Preparations against him , died in the Year 1016 , whose Son Edmund , sirnamed Ironside , did defend himself with great Bravery against the Danes , and might have obtained several Victories over them , if he had not been therein prevented by that Traitor Edrick . At last it was agreed , That both Kings should make an end of the War by a single Combat , in which , tho' Edmund had the advantage of giving Canute a dangerous stroke , yet was he persuaded to finish the Combat , by dividing the Kingdom with the Danes ; King , Edmund treacherously murther'd . and was afterwards , as he retired privately to ease Nature , treacherously murther'd by Edrick .

§ . 4. Canute , the Dane , King of England . After the death of Edmund , Canute called together the English Lords , and asked them , Whether at the time , when the Kingdom was divided , there was any thing mentioned concerning the right of Succession of the Brothers and Sons of Edmund ; and the English , out of fear , answering there was not , he received Homage from them , and was crowned King of England . 1017. After he had rid himself of all that were left of the Royal Race , he , to curry favour with the People , married Emma , the Widow of King Ethelred , sent most of his Danes home , and reigned with great applause . Some of his Parasites , who pretended to attribute to him something above a Humane Power , he ridicul'd , by causing a Chair to be set near the Sea-side , commanding the Seas not to wet his Feet ; but the Tide rolling on the Waves as usually , he told them , That from thence they might judge of what extent was the Power of all worldly Kings . He died in the Year 1035. Harald . His Son Harald succeeded , by reason of his nimbleness sirnamed Harefoot : He did nothing worth mentioning , but that he caused his Stepmother Emma , and her Sons , whom he had , with fair words , persuaded to come over out of Normandy , to be miserably murther'd . He died in the Year 1039 , leaving no Children behind him . After his death the great Men of the kingdom called out of Denmark , Hardiknut . Hardiknut his Brother , born of Emma and Canute , who was famous for nothing but his greedy Appetite , he being used to keep Table four times a day . His Subjects were so averse to him , that when he happened to die at a Feast , after he had reign'd but two Years , the English made publick Rejoicings in the Streets , which they called Hocks-tide ; the Danes , after his death , growing so despicable to the English , that the Danish Government in England expired , after they had ravag'd England for the space of 240 , tho' they possessed the Throne but 26 Years . Edward the Consessor . After the death of Hardiknut , Edward sirnamed the Confessor , Son of King Ethelred and Emma , Brother of Hardiknut on the Mother's-side , who had sought Sanctuary in Normandy , was called in , to be king of England : He was crowned in the Year 1042 ; and to gain the Affection of the People , he remitted a Tax called Danegeld , which had been constantly paid for forty Years last past . He reigned very peaceably , except , that he was now and then pester'd with the Irish and Danish Pirates , whom , nevertheless , he quickly overcame . He was the first to whom was attributed that Virtue , which even to this day the Kings of England are said to have , to heal by touching , that Disease which in England is called the King 's Evil. 1066. He died without Children . He intended to have left the Kingdom to his Cousin Edgar Atheling , Grandson of King Edmund Ironside ; but he being very young , Harald , Son of Goodwin Earl of Kent , who had the Tuition of Edgar , put the Crown upon his own Head , but did not enjoy it above nine Months , being slain in a Battel by William Duke of Normandy , whereby the Crown of England was transferr'd to the Norman Family .

§ . 5. This William , W●lliam the Conquerour . sirnamed the Conquerour , was Son of Robert Duke of Normandy , who was descended from Rollo , a Dane , who about the Year 900 , with a great number of his Country-men and Norwegians , fell into France , and ravaging the Country without resistance , Charles the Simple , the then King of France , thought it the best way to set him at quiet , by putting him into possession of the Province of Neustria , which afterwards was called Normandy , and giving to him in Marriage his Daughter Geisa , under condition that he should become a Christian . Rollo had a Son whose Name was William , sirnamed Long-sword ; whose Son was Richard , sirnamed the Hardy ; who was the Father of Richard II. sirnamed the Good , who was succeeded by his son Richard III. as he was by his Son Richard IV. But he dying without Issue , after him Robert became Duke of Normandy . This Robert was Father to William the Conquerour , whom he had by one Arlotte , a Furrier's Daughter , with whom , 't is said , he fell in love , seeing her dance among other Maids in the Country , and afterwards married her . And notwithstanding this William was a Bastard , yet his Father made him his Successour , and got the Nobility to acknowledge him as such when he was but nine Years of Age , and died soon after . This William met with great Troubles and Dangers in his younger Years , which he had the good fortune to overcome by his Valour , and acquired thereby great Reputation . Willam conquers England . After the death of Edward the Confessour , William understanding that Harald had made himself King , resolv'd to demand the Crown of England , as belonging to him by virtue of the last Will of King Edward , who , he pretended , had left the same to him , as an acknowledgment for the great Favours he had received from his Father Robert . There are others , who say , That Edward did only promise this by word of mouth ; and that Harald being then in Normandy , was forc'd to engage by Oath , to help him in obtaining the Crown of England . It is possible , this was only made use of as a pretence . But however it be , William landed without resistance with a great Army , compos'd of Normans , French and Netherlanders , whilst the Fleet of Harald was sailed to the Northern Coast of England , to oppose his Brother and Harald Harfager King of Norway , who were enter'd England on that side , and both vanquish'd by him ; but thereby he left open the Door to William to enter into the Kingdom , and brought his Souldiers back much weakened and fatigued by their great Marches : Yet having reinforc'd his Army as well as he could , he offer'd Battel to William near Hastings in Sussex ; October 14 , which Battel was fought on both sides with great obstinacy ; 1066. till Harald being mortally wounded by an Arrow , the Victory and Crown of England remain'd to William ; England , without any further resistance , acknowledging him for a King . The English were at first extreamly well satisfy'd with his Government , he leaving each in possession of what was his own , and only giving the vacant Lands to his Normans ; partly , also , because he was related to the former Kings of England , partly , because he was greatly recommended to them by the Pope . He was also very strenuous in securing himself , commanding all the Arms to be taken from the People , and to prevent Nocturnal Assemblies and Commotions , he ordered , The Corfew Bell. That after the Bell had rung at eight in the Evening , no Fire nor Candle should be seen in their Houses : Besides this , he built several Forts in the most commodious places . Notwithstanding all this , Edgar Atheling makes an attempt . Edgar Atheling being with some of the Nobility retir'd into Scotland , and being assisted by the Danish Pirates , continually ravag'd the Northern Parts of England , burning the City of York it self , wherein all the Normans were put to the Sword ; but he forced them afterwards thence . There was also a dangerous Conspiracy set on foot against him , which was happily suppress'd by him , before the Conspirators could join their Forces . His Son Robert Rebels . His Son Robert also , endeavoured to take from him Normandy , against whom his Father led a great Army out of England , and the Father and Son encountring one another in the Battel , the first was dismounted by the latter , but he discovering him to be his Father by his voice , immediately dismounted , embraced him , and begg'd his pardon , and was reconcil'd to his Father , who freely pardon'd all past Injuries . This King also forc'd Wales to pay him Tribute , and King Malcolm of Scotland to swear Fealty to him . But perceiving that this new-conquer'd People would not be govern'd altogether by Mildness , he began to act more severely , He acts as a Conquerour . taking away out of the Convents what Gold and Silver he could meet with , of which there was great store convey'd thither , as into Sanctuaries . He also imposed heavy Taxes , he appropriated to himself a great part of the Lands of England , which he gave unto others , reserving to himself out of them a yearly Revenue . He took upon him the Administration of the Goods and Possessions of all Minors , till they came to the 21st Year of Age , allowing them only so much as was requisite for their Maintenance : He revised all their Privileges , introduced new Laws in the Norman Tongue ; whereby a great many , that did not understand that Language , fell under severe Penalties : He erected new Courts of Judicature , and employed great tracts of Ground for the conveniency of his Hunting . This King introduced first the use of the long Bow in England , whereby he had chiefly obtained the Victory against Harald , and whereby afterwards the English did great mischief to the French , and gained many Battels from them . At last , Philip I. King of France , by stirring up his Son Robert against him , Robert Rebels again . endeavouring to raise Disturbances in Normandy , he went in person over into Normandy , where the Son was quickly reconcil'd to the Father . But being obliged to keep his Bed at Roan , by reason of an Indisposition in his Belly , which was very gross , the King of France ridicul'd him , asking , How long he intended to lie in ; to whom William sent this Answer , That as soon as he could go to Church after his lying in , he had vow'd to sacrifice a thousand Candles in France ; and he was as good as his word , for he was no sooner recover'd , but he invaded France , and burnt all where-ever he came : But he having overheated himself he fell ill and died , 1088. leaving by his last Will , to his eldest Son Normandy , but to the second , called William , the Crown of England .

§ . 6. William II. sirnamed Rufus , met , William Rufus . at first , with some Disturbances , occasioned by his Brother Robert , who pretending to the Crown , was back'd by a great many of the Nobility : but he appeased him , by promising to pay him yearly , the Summ of 3000 Marks , and that he should succeed him after his death . But the Nobles , who had dispersed themselves up and down in the Country , he partly by fair means , partly by force , reduced to Obedience . This Rebellion proved very beneficial to the English , the Rebels being most of them Normans , wherefore the King afterwards rely'd more upon the English , as the most faithfull . He waged War twice with Malcolm King of Scotland , whom he forced in the first to swear him Fealty , but in the last , he killed both him and his eldest Son . He also subdued the Province of Wales . Among other Inventions to get Money one was remarkable ; for he summon'd together 20000 Men , under pretence to go with them into Normandy , but when they were just agoing to be shipp'd off , he caused Proclamation to be made , that every one who was willing to pay ten Shillings , should have leave to stay at home , unto which every one of them readily consented . He was kill'd by a random shot in hunting . 1100. Him succeeded his younger Brother Henry , Henry I. who being present when the King died , seized upon his Treasures , whereby he procured himself a great many Friends , so that he was preferr'd before Robert his elder Brother , who at that time assisted in the taking of Jerusalem , which proved no less than the loss of a Crown to him . For Henry , the better to establish himself in the Throne , remitted not only several Taxes , which were laid upon the People by the former Kings , but also secured unto his Interest the King of Scotland , Edgar , his most dangerous Neighbour , by marrying his Sister Maud. 'T is reported , that this Maud had vow'd Castity , and that when her Brother forced her to marry , she wish'd , that such Children , as should be born out of this Marriage , might never prove fortunate ; which wish was afterwards sufficiently fulfilled in her Children , and a great many of their Posterity . Robert makes a Lesient in England . Notwithstanding this , Robert landed a great Army in England , but Henry and Robert , by the mediation of some Friends , and a Promise of a yearly Pension to be paid to Robert from Henry , were reconcil'd , which Pension also afterwards Robert remitted to Henry . But afterwards repenting of what he had done , Henry was so exasperated against him , that he made a Descent in Normandy with a great Army , and vanquish'd him in a bloody Battel , wherein he took him Prisoner . He kept him not only a Prisoner all his life time , Normandy annexed to the Crown of England . but also , at last , put his Eyes out , uniting Normandy to the Crown of England . But King Lewis of France , sirnamed Crassus , being very jealous of the Greatness of Henry , undertook , with the assistance of Fulco Earl of Anjou , and Baldwin Earl of Flanders , to restore unto William , Son of Robert , the Dukedom of Normandy ; whereupon a bloody War ensued , which was at last composed under this condition , That William , Son of Henry , should swear Fealty to France , for this Dukedom of Normandy . And it obtained afterwards as a Custom , That the King 's eldest Son , was called Duke of Normandy , as long as this Province was united to England . The new Duke of Normandy did also marry the Daughter of the Earl of Anjou : And William , Son of Robert , being then made Earl of Flanders , and endeavouring a second time to regain Normandy , was slain in that War . It is related by some , tho' others contradict it , That this King was the first who admitted the Commons unto the Grand Council of the Kingdom , unto which the Nobility and Bishops only were admitted before it came to be divided into the Higher and Lower House . His Son William , being by the carelessness of a drunken Master of a Ship drowned at Sea , with a great many other persons of Quality of both Sexes , as they were coming back from Normandy to England , he endeavoured to settle the Crown upon his Daughter Maud , and her Heirs , she being at first married to the Emperour , Henry IV. by whom she had no Children , and afterwards to Geoffrey Plantagenet , Son to Fulk Earl of Anjou . Her Father made the States of England take Oaths of Fealty to her in his life time . The Norman Race extinct . He died in the Year 1135 , and with him ended the Male Race of the Norman Royal Family in England .

§ . 7. Stephen . After the death of Henry , Stephen Earl of Boulogne , Henry's Sister's Son , did by great Promises obtain the Crown of England , notwithstanding that both he and the States had taken the Oaths to acknowledge Maud for their Sovereign , which they endeavoured by a great many frivolous pretences to prove to be of no force . The better to establish himself in the Throne , he gained the Affection of the States with Presents , and discharged the People of several Taxes , giving Authority to the Nobility to build fortify'd Castles , which afterwards proved very mischievous to him . He also married his Son Eustace to Constantia , the Daughter of Ludovicus Crassus , King of France . This King's Reign was overwhelmed with continual Troubles . For the Scots , at first , and afterwards a great many of his Nobles , trusting in their strong Castles , raised great Disturbances ; yet he bridled the Insolence of the Scots , giving them a signal overthrow . Maud makes War on him . But his greatest Contest was with the Empress Maud ; for she landing in England was received by a great many , and King Stephen in a Battel fought near Chester , was taken Prisoner . But she refusing to restore to the Londoners , King Edward''s Laws , they sided with her Enemies , and besieged her very closely in the City of Oxford , from whence she narrowly escaped ; and King Stephen also got an opportunity to get out of Prison . These Troubles continued till Henry , Son of Maud , came to the nineteenth Year of his age , who , being Lord of four large Dominions , as having inherited Anjou by his Father's , Normandy by his Mother's side , Guienne and Poictou by his Wife Eleonora , Daughter and Heiress of William , the last Duke of Guienne , he also endeavoured to obtain the Crown of England ; for which purpose he landed with an Army in England . But he obtained his End without any great opposition ; for Eustace , King Stephen's Son dying suddenly , an Agreement was made betwixt them , whereby Stephen adopted him , and constituted him his Heir and Successour , and died not long after in the Year 1124. Henry II. Henty II. therefore succeeded him , who , among other memorable Actions , demolish'd such fortify'd Castles of the Nobility and Bishops , as were built with the consent of King Stephen . After he had reigned near eighteen Years in Peace and Quietness , he had a mind to have his Son Henry crowned , the better to secure the Succession , he received him as his Copartner in the Government ; but he being married to Margaret , the Daughter of Lewis the younger King of France , this proved the cause of great Disturbances afterwards . For some persuaded young Henry , That his Father having abdicated himself from the Government , had committed thereby the same to his management . France envy'd that a King of England should have such vast Possessions in France . The Scots wish'd for nothing more , than to have an opportunity of committing Depredations in England . Wherefore the French and Scots , H●s Son , with the French and Scots , join in a War against him . joining with young Henry , fell upon Henry II. all at one time , but were as vigorously repulsed by him ; the Scots , especially , suffered the most in this War , and lost all Huntingtonshire . A Peace was also concluded with France ; Adela , Daughter of Lewis King of France , being promised in marriage to Richard , second Son of Henry . But the old King , as 't is reported , falling in love with her , privately kept her company , and therefore opposed the consummation of the marriage betwixt her and his Son Richard . This so exasperated Richard , who , after the death of his eldest Brother Henry , was now the next Heir to the Crown , that he made Head against his Father ; and Philip Augustus , King of France , taking hold of this opportunity , took the City of Muns . King Henry seeing himself , besides this , deserted by his Friends , 1189. Wife , and Children , died in few days of Grief . Ireland conquered . This Henry also conquer'd Ireland , and united it to England , which he and his Successours govern'd under the Title of Lords of Ireland , till the time of Henry VIII . who , after he had withdrawn himself from the Obedience of the Pope , to nettle him the more , assumed the Title of King of Ireland ; because the Pope pretends to the sole right to bestow the Title of King in Christendom , and that none ought to take it upon him without his consent ; wherefore the Pope , afterwards , to make his Pretence the more plausible , freely gave the same Title to Mary Queen of England . Henry also had some differences with Thomas Backet , Archbishop of Canterbury , who pretended it was derogatory to the Glory of God , that the Priests , according to the King's Commands , should be subject to the Civil Judicatures . There is a fabulous Relation concerning this Archbishop Thomas , That he riding a Horse-back , one time , through a Village , the Country Fellows cut off the Tail of his Horse , and that their Children , afterwards , were born with such Tails .

§ . 8. Richard I. Richard I. who succeeded his Father Henry in the Kingdom , did , out of a preposterous Zeal , undertake an Expedition into the Holy Land , He makes an Expedition into the Holy Land . with 35000 Men , being accompained by Philip Augustus , King of France . In this War he took the Island of Cyprus , which he gave to Guido Lusignanus , who in consideration thereof resigned his Right to Jerusalem ; and in the Year 1192 , he was present at the taking of Ptolemais , where the Standard of Duke Leopold of Austria being set up first , he pull'd it down again , putting his own in the place . But when they were in great hopes of gaining Jerusalem , Philip returned home engaging himself by a solemn Oath , that he would not injure Richard in any of his Dominions . Hugo , Duke of Burgundy , afterwards followed his example , which greatly encouraged Saladin : And Richard understanding that the French were fallen into Normandy , he also made a Peace with Saladin ; and taking his way by Land incognito , In his return ●e is taken Prisoner . was discovered in his Journey through Austria , where Duke Leopold , remembring the affront done to him near Ptolemais , took him Prisoner , and delivered him to the Emperour , who after fifteen Months Imprisonment , made him pay 100000 Pounds for his Ransom . After his return home , he found every thing in confusion , the French having not only ravaged Normandy , and other Provinces belonging to him , but also his Brother had made a Pretension to the Crown ; but he obliged the latter to implore his Pardon , and beat the French back into their own Country . 1199. He died not long after , of a wound which he received in a Siege of some inconsiderable place in France . John . After his death his Brother John took upon him the Crown of England , His Nephew Arthur opposes him . who was opposed by Arthur Earl of the lesser Britainy , his elder Brother's Son ; who finding himself alone not strong enough , sought for Aid of the King of France , who was ready upon all occasions to create Troubles in England . He took a great many Cities in Normandy and Anjou . Wherefore King John was obliged to make a dishonourable Peace with him , giving in marriage , to Lewis , King Philip's Son , Blanch Daughter of Alfonsus , King of Castile , and of his Sister Eleonora , to whom he gave as a Dowry , all the Cities which Philip had taken from him , except Angiers . Then he married Isabella , Daughter and Heiress of the Earl of Angoulesme , who was promised before to Hugh Earl of Marche . He , to revenge this affront , join'd his Forces with the King of France and Prince Arthur of Britainy , and fell into Touraine and Anjou . But King John falling upon them unawares , routed the Enemy , and took Prince Arthur Prisoner , who died not long after a Prisoner in Roan . But Constantia , the Mother of Arthur , made her Complaints to Philip King of France , whose Vassal King John was , on the score of such Provinces as he was possess'd of in France , and the King of France summon'd King John to appear before him , and to answer for the death of Arthur . But he not appearing , The King of France dispossesses him of Normandy . it was declar'd , that King John had forfeited what Fiefs he was possess'd of in France , and King Philip took from him Normandy 316 Years after Rollo the Norman had conquered the same . But the French afterwards attack'd also Angiers , where they were repulsed with great loss by King John , whereupon a Truce was concluded betwixt them for two Years : During which time he routed the Scots , and suppressed the Rebels in Ireland and Wales . The Truce being expired , the War began afresh with France , and King John's Army being routed , he made another Truce with France . But this ill success had much diminished his Authority among his Nobles , who also hated him , because he had imposed heavy Taxes upon them ; wherefore they , with joint consent , demanded from him the restitution of their ancient Privileges ; but perceiving that he only intended to give them fair Words for Deeds , The Dauphin invited by the Barons , invades England . they called to their aid , Lewis , Son of Philip King of France , who landing with a great Army in England , was received with a general applause , and whilst King John endeavoured to make Head against him , 1216. he died overwhelm'd with Troubles .

§ . 9. Henry III. Him succeeded his Son Henry III. whose tender Age wrought Compassion on most , and extinguish'd the Hatred which had been conceiv'd against his Father . And the Earl of Pembroke , to whose Tuition he was committed , having totally routed the French near Lincoln , and destroyed the French Forces at Sea , The Dauphin is forced ●ome again . that were sent to their assistance , Lewis did renounce all his Pretensions upon the Crown of England , and retir'd into France . This King's Reign was very long , but also very troublesom , occasion'd chiefly by the great concourse of Foreigners into England ; who crept into all places of profit : For the Pope sent at one time 300 Italians , who being admitted into Church Benefices , did so lay about them , that their yearly Rents amounted to 60000 Marks of Silver , which was a greater Revenue than the Crown had at that time . And by reason of the Prodigality of the King , tho' constantly burthening the People with Taxes , he was always in great want of Money . He married , besides this , the Daughter of the Earl of Provence , who having abundance of poor Kindred , they enrich'd themselves out of the Treasury of the King . This caused , at last , A War with the Barons . an open War betwixt the King and the principal Men of the Kingdom , in which Henry resign'd to the King of France , He quits his Pretensions on Normandy for a Summ of Money . all his Pretensions upon Normandy , Anjou , Poictou , Touraine and Mans , in consideration of the Summ of 300000 pounds paid him by the French King , and he was himself taken Prisoner in the first Battel : But his Son , Prince Edward , gathered another Army , and killed the General of the Rebels , Simon of Monfort Earl of Leicester ; delivering thereby his Father , and suppressing the whole Rebellion . He did nothing worth mentioning abroad , except that he undertook two Expeditions into France , both which prov'd fruitless . He died in the Year 1272. Him succeed his Son Edward , Edward I. who was at that time in the Holy Land ; and tho' he did not come into England till a Year after his Father's death , yet took quiet possession of the Crown . This King entirely united the Principality of Wales to the Crown of England , the last Prince , Lyonel , being slain in a Battel . Under his Reign also began a bloody War , and an implacable hatred was raised betwixt the English and Scotch Nations , which for 300 Years after caused abundance of bloodshed betwixt both Nations . The occasion was thus : The causes of the Differences betwixt the English and Scots . After the death of Alexander III. King of Scotland , who died without Heirs , there were several that pretended to the Crown of Scotland , wherefore King Edward took upon him the Arbitration of this matter , that Crown having depended on his Predecessours , and the Scots being still obliged to do Homage to the King of England . The matter being examined , it so proved , that John Baliol Earl of Galloway , and Robert Bruce , were found to have the best Title to that Crown . But these two having contested for the same during the space of six whole Years , Edward sent under hand to Bruce , telling him , That he would decide the difference concerning the Crown of Scotland in favour of him , if he would swear Fealty to England , which Bruce refused , answering , That he was not so fond of the Crown , as to purchase the same with the prejudice of the Liberty of his Native Country . But John Baliol receiving the same offer , was made King of Scotland . There was about that time a capital Quarrel in Scotland , betwixt the Earl of Fife and the Family of Alberneth , who had kill'd the Earl's Brother , and the King of Scotland had by his Sentence absolv'd the latter . The Earl , therefore , appeal'd to the English Court , whither King Baliol was called to appear , and to sit with the King in Parliament : But as soon as this matter came under debate , he was admonished to rise from his Seat , and to give an account concerning his Sentence . He pretended to answer by his Advocate , which being denied him , he was obliged to answer in person from the same place , where others used to plead their Causes : Which both he and the Scots resented as so signal an affront , that , no sooner was he returned home , but he renounced his Oath to King Edward , pretending the same to have been unjust , and that it was not in his power to make such a promise ; and renewing the ancient Aliance with France , he denounced War against England . A War with Scotland . King Edward , therefore enter'd Scotland with an Army , took the best strong Holds , and forced the Scots and their King to swear fealty to him ; their King he sent a Prisoner into England , leaving considerable Forces in Scotland , which were , nevertheless , soon after beaten out of Scotland by the Scots , under the Conduct of a Gentleman of a mean Fortune , whose name was William Wallis . But King Edward soon returned , kill'd 40000 Scots in a Battel near Torkirke , and forced them to swear Fealty to him a third time . Notwithstanding all these Oaths , Robert Bruce , who had been John Baliol's Competitour , took upon him the Crown , who was several times worsted , but also beat the English at other times , particularly when King Edward going with an Army against Robert , in person , fell sick and died . 1307. This King Edward had also had some Differences before with France . For some of his Subjects in Aquitain , having done considerable mischief by Privateering on the Coast of Normandy , King Philip sirnam'd the Handsome summon'd Edward to appear at his Court as his Vassal , and to answer the same , which Edward refusing to do , he declared all his Possessions which he held from the Crown of France to be forfeited ; taking from him by force of Arms Bourdeaux and some other places ; With France . against whom Edward enter'd into a Confederacy with the Earl of Flanders and the Emperour Adolphus . But coming into Flanders with an Army , and finding every thing in confusion and disorder , he made a Truce with King Philip , promising , That his Son Edward should marry Isabella , Philip's Daughter . 1297. This King caused , likewise , all the Jews to be banished out of England , He banishes the Jews . not allowing them to carry away any thing more than what they could carry themselves .

§ . 10. Edward II. Him succeeded his Son Edward II. who at the very beginning of his Reign , married Isabella , Daughter of Philip sirnamed the Handsom , with whom he had for a Dowry Guienne , and the County of Ponthieu , the greatest part whereof had been taken from his Father by the French . Vnsuccessfull 〈◊〉 his War with Scotland . This King was very unfortunate in his Wars against the Scots , who in the Battel fought near Bannoksborough , with an Army of 30000 Men defeated 100000 English , which struck such a terrour among them , that 100 English durst scarce face three Scotchmen : And the English were continually beaten by the Scots ( except in Ireland , where they beat the Scots out , who had enter'd that Kingdom ) so that Edward was at last obliged to make a Truce with them . 〈…〉 He met also with great Disturbances at home , the great Men of the Kingdom pressing him without intermission , to leave to their Mercy , his Favourites Gaveston , and after him the Spencers , which he refusing to consent to , they fell into open Rebellion , in which they proving unsuccessfull , several of the Nobility paid with their lives for it . But the Queen , pretending that the Spencers had diverted the King's Love from her , retir'd first into France , and from thence into Hainault , and returning with an Army , took the King Prisoner , and caused the Spencers to be executed . The King was carried from place to place , and greatly abused during his Imprisonment , having been forced before by the Parliament , to resign the Kingdom to his Son Edward . At last , about six Months after his Deposition , 1327. he was miserably murther'd .

§ . 11. Edward III. Edward III. was very young when the Crown was conferr'd upon him , wherefore the Administration of the Government was , during his Minority committed to his Mother , and managed under her chiefly by her Favourite Roger Mortimer . She immediately , at the beginning , made a dishonourable Peace with Scotland , whereby Edward renounced the Sovereignty and all other Pretensions upon that Kingdom ; and the Scots renounced their Title to Cumberland and Northumberland . This and some other matters laid to their charge , was the reason why , some Years after , the Queen was condemned to a perpetual Imprisonment , and Mortimer was hanged . Afterwards a most cruel War broke out betwixt England and France ; for Lewis , Philip and Charles , all three Sons of Philip sirnamed the Handsom , dying without Issue , His Pretensions to the French Crown . Edward did pretend a right to the French Crown , as being the late King 's Sister's Son ; alledging , That if his Mother , as being a Woman , might be thought incapable of governing the Realm , the same ought not to be prejudicial to him , as being a Man . But Philip de Valois , notwithstanding he was a degree farther of , as being the late King's Father 's Brother's Son , yet prevailed with the States , who under pretence of the Salick Law , and the hatred they bore to a Foreign Sovereign ; being , besides this , encouraged thereunto by the Earl of Artois , set him upon the Throne . Edward being afterwards summon'd by Philip , to come in person , and to do Homage for the Dukedom of Aquitain , went thither in person , he being then but young , and England full of intestine Commotions , notwithstanding this seemed to be very prejudicial to his Pretensions : And King Edward appearing in the Church at Amiens with the Crown upon his Head , his Sword and Spurs on , was ordered to lay them aside , and to take the Oath upon his Knees ; which so exasperated Edward , that France afterwards felt the effects of it . Not long after , Edward Baliol , Son of John Baliol , made pretensions to the Crown of Scotland against the young King , being assisted by King Edward , notwithstanding King David of Scotland had married his Sister . During which Commotions the English recovered Barwick upon Tweed , He is successfull against Scotland . and in one Battel killed 30000 Scots , whereupon Edward Baliol did do Homage to the King of England for the Crown of Scotland . By this time King Edward being come to his riper years , His Expedition into France . upon the instigation of Robert Earl of Artois , undertook an Expedition into France , and taking upon him the Title and Arms of France , renewed his Pretensions to that Crown . In this Expedition he entirely routed the French Fleet near Sluys , which was sent to hinder his landing , 1340. and defeated 30000 Men. and after he had besieged Tournay he made a Truce with them for twelve Months . In the mean while the English were engaged in a War with the Scots , who , under the Conduct of their former King David , had driven out Edward Baliol. The time of the Truce being expir'd , the War began afresh in France , where , among other places , the English took Angoulesme . King Edward himself came with a great Army into Normandy , and took , both there and in Picardy , a great many places from the French : At last a bloody Battel was fought betwixt them near Crecy in Picardy , The Battel near Crecy . wherein the English , tho' but 30000 strong , fought against 60000 French , killing 30000 upon the spot , among whom were 1500 persons of Quality . The next day after 7000 French were cut to pieces by the English , who , not knowing what had happened the day before , were upon their march to the French Camp . 1346. In this Battel no Quarter was given on either side . Much about the same time King David of Scotland enter'd England with an Army of 60000 Men , to make a Diversion in behalf of France ; The Scotch defeated . but he was defeated in a great Battel , and himself taken Prisoner . The English had no less success the same Year in Britainy and Guienne . In the Year next following King Edward took the City of Calais , He takes Calais . which he fill'd with English Inhabitants . Prince Edward , Son to Edward III. 1356. whom his Father had sent with an Army into Guienne , behaved himself very valiantly , making great havock where-ever he came . John King of France drew out an Army against him of 60000 Men , tho' the Prince was not above 8000 strong ; upon this the King , thinking he had catch'd the Bird in the Net , would not accept of any Conditions , tho' never so advantageous . But Prince Edward having posted his Men betwixt the Bushes and Vineyards , from thence so gall'd the French Horse with his long Bows , that they being repulsed , put all the rest in confusion ; King John himself was taken Prisoner , as also his youngest Son , and above 1700 persons of Quality were slain . The Battel near Poictiers . This Battel was fought about two Leagues from Poictiers . At last , after King Edward had with three Armies over-run the greatest part of France , a Peace was concluded by the Mediation of the Pope , at Bretaigny , A dishonourable Peace to France . not far from Chartres : The Conditions of this Peace were , That England , besides what it had before in France , should be put in possession of Poictou , Zaintogne , Rochelle , Pais d' Aulnis , Angoumois , Perigord , Limoisin , Quercy , Agenois , and Bigorre , with an absolute Sovereignty over the same ; besides this , the City of Calais , the Counties of Oye , Guisnes , and Ponthieu , and three Millions of Crowns were to be given as a Ransom for the King ; and that King John should give his three younger Sons , his Brother , and thirty other persons of Quality as Hostages for the payment of the said Summs . But that on the other side , the English should restore all the other places which they had taken from the French , and renounce their Right and Title to the Crown of France . The Peace being thus concluded , Prince Edward , to whom his Father had given the Dukedom of Aquitain , restored Peter King of Castile to his Kingdom . But in his Journey , the Souldiers being very mutinous for want of Pay , he levyed an extraordinary Tax upon his Subjects , which they complaining of to the King of France , he summon'd the Prince to appear before him , who answer'd , He would suddenly appear with an Army of 60000 Men ; therefore Charles V. King of France , Another War with France . denounced War against the English , pretending , that the promised Sovereignty , at the last Peace , was void , because the Prince had not fulfilled the Articles of the same , and had committed Hostilities against France . But whilst Prince Edward was busie in making great Preparations against France , he died suddenly , and with him , the English good Fortune ; for the French took from them all the Dukedom of Aquitain , except Bourdeaux and Bayonne . The King was so troubled at the loss both of so brave a Son and his Conquests in France , that he died within ten Months after his Son . 1377.

§ . 12. Richard II. Him succeeded Richard II. Son of that brave Prince Edward , who being but eleven Years of Age when he came to the Crown , was despised by the French , who burnt several places on the English Coast . The Scots also made an Inrode on the other side of England , and the War being carried on with various Fortune , A Peace with France . after several Truces expired , a Peace was at last concluded . There were also great commotions in the Kingdom under this King's Reign : Troubles at home . For in Kent , and other neighbouring Counties , there was an Insurrection of the Rabble , occasioned by the Insolence of one of the Receivers of the Poll Tax : This Rabbles Intention was to have murthered both the Nobility and Clergy , except the Mendicant Fryars ; but were soon restrained by the King's Valour . But there were continual Discontents betwixt the King and the Lords , the King being resolved to rule according to his Pleasure , and to maintain his Favourites against the Lords , who were for removing his Favourites , and bringing his Royal Power into a more narrow compass by the Authority of the Parliament . But it was the King's custom , as soon as the Parliament was dissolved , to reverse all that was concluded upon before ; yet once the Parliament got him at an advantage , when it forced him to permit most of his Favourites to be either kill'd or banish'd ; and obliged him by an Oath to promise , That he would administer the Government according to the Advice of his Lords . Not long after , a Conspiracy among the Lords was discovered against him , a great many of them paid for it with their Heads , the King seemed at last to have master'd his Enemies ; but he was , nevertheless , ruin'd at last , which was occasioned thus : The occasion of his Ruin . Henry Duke of Lancaster accused the Duke of Norfolk , as if he had spoken ill of the King ; and the latter giving the lye to the former , they challenged one another , but the Duel was prevented by the King's Authority , who banish'd them both out of the Kingdom . Henry of Lancaster retired into France , raising there a Faction against the King , by inviting all dissatisfy'd persons to him , who promised to set him on the Throne of England . Henry Duke of Lancaster invades England . He landed but with a few in England , but at a time , as King Richard's ill Fortune would have it , when he was in Ireland ; and the Wind proving contrary , he could not have notice of his Enemies arrival in England till six Weeks after , which gave them opportunity and leisure to strengthen their Party . The King also committed a great errour , for that he afterwards , against his Promise , tarry'd so long in Ireland , which was the cause , that such Forces as were brought together by his Friends , whom he had sent before , were again dispersed before his arrival in England . Coming afterwards in person into England , and being informed how powerfull his Enemies were , he despair'd of his Affairs , and having dismiss'd his Forces , that were ready to fight for him till the last gasp , he was made a Prisoner . Henry of Lancaster calling , immediately hereupon , a Parliament , a great many things were objected to Richard , and he was declared to have forfeited the Crown . But before this Resolution was published , he resign'd himself , and was not long after miserably murthered in Prison . 1399.

§ . 14. Thus Henry IV. of the House of Lancaster , Henry IV. of the House of Lancaster . came to the Crown , he being after the Deposition of King Richard declared King by the Parliament , tho' , if the Pretensions of Henry , together with the Power of the Parliament , be duely examined , the Title of Henry IV. to the Crown of England , will be found to have a very ill Foundation . For what some pretend , that Edmund , from whom the House of Lancaster descended , was the eldest Son of Henry III. and that he being very deformed , was obliged to give way to his Brother Edward I. is rejected as a frivolous Fable by the English Historians . This King did labour under great difficulties at the beginning of his Reign , He had great Difficulties which he surmounted . all which he at last overcame : For the Design of the French to restore Richard ended with his death . And a Conspiracy of some Lords against him was discover'd , even before Richard died . The Scots , who made War on him , got nothing but blows . The Welshmen also , in hopes of having met with an opportunity to shake off the English Yoke , joined with a discontented Party out of England , and rebell'd against him ; but before they could join all their Forces , the King came suddenly upon them , and overthrew them in a great Battel , wherein , 't is said , the King kill'd six and thirty with his own Hands . Yet the discontented Party did not rest , but enter'd into a third Conspiracy against him , which was soon discover'd . A great many of them retir'd afterwards into Scotland , where they stirr'd up the Scots against England ( for these never used to miss an opportunity of being troublesome to England ) but they got nothing but blows again for their pains . This King died in the Year 1413.

§ . 15. Henry V. After him reigned his Son Henry V. who in his younger Years did not promise much , but after he came to the Crown , shew'd himself one of the most valiant Kings the English ever had . And as he was very Aspiring and Ambitious , so he thought he could not meet with a better opportunity of gaining Glory , than by entring into a War with France , and renewing the ancient Pretensions upon that Crown . He sent , therefore , his Ambassadours to Charles VI. to lay claim to that Crown , and to make this Proposition to him , That if he would resign to him the Crown of France , he would marry his Daughter Catharine . But it being not usual that Princes are persuaded to part with a Crown thus , the next way was to try their Fortune by Arms. He invades France to prosecute his claim of the Crown . The Battel uear Aguicourt . Henry therefore enter'd France with an Army , took Harfleur , and obtained afterwards a most signal Victory near Agincourt in Picardy against the French , who ( according to the English Historians ) were six times stronger than the English . Ten thousand of the French were kill'd upon the spot , and as many taken Prisoners , not above some Hundreds being slain of the English : Yet at that time Henry did not pursue his Victory . But not long after , the French Fleet having first been beaten by the English near Harfleur , Henry made a second Descent upon France , taking one place after another in Normandy , and at last the City of Roan it self : He met with very little opposition in France at that time , 1419. because all was in confusion at the French Court , the King , Charles VI. being not in his right Wits , and the Queen being fallen out with her Son , the Dauphin , who had taken from her all her Jewels and Money , alledging , That they might be better employ'd upon the Souldiery : Which was the reason that the Queen siding with John Duke of Burgundy , did promote him to the place of chief Minister of France ; who was more intent to maintain his private Interest and Greatness , against the Dauphin , than to make Head against the English . A Congress was proposed to be held betwixt the two Kings , but this Design was frustrated by the cunning of the Dauphin , who gave the Duke hopes of an entire Reconciliation to be made betwixt them both . And Monterau being named for the place where they should meet , the Duke of Burgundy was there , ( questionless , by instigation of the Dauphin ) miserably murther'd . For this reason his Son , Duke Philip , being resolved to revenge his Father's death , declared openly for the English , and by his Mediation obtain'd , That King Henry should marry the Princess Catharine , and during the life of his Wife's Father , administer the Government in his name , but after his death , should succeed him in the Throne . The Nuptials were afterwards celebrated at Troyes in Champaigne . 1420. After the Treaty had been confirmed by solemn Oaths on both sides , The Administration of France to be in Henry during Charles's life , and after his death the Crown to descend to him . which was also ratify'd by the three Estates assembled in Paris , where the Dauphin was summon'd to appear , to answer concerning the death of the Duke of Burgundy : But he not appearing , Sentence was given against him , That he should for ever be banish'd out of France . There were also some who design'd to make him away , and he was forced to go from place to place , but his common place of Residence was Bourges , wherefore they used to call him , by way of ridiculing , The King of Bourges . In the mean time the English took one place after another from him . At last , King Henry being upon his March to raise the Siege of the City of Cosne on the Loire , which was besieged by the Dauphin , he fell sick in his Journey thither , and being carried to Bois de Vicennes , there died in the flower of his Age and Felicity , 1422. leaving the Administration of France to his Brother , the Duke of Bedford , and the Administration of England to his second Brother , the Duke of Gloucester .

§ . 15. Henry VI. Him succeeded his Son Henry VI. a Child of eight Months old ; who , after he was grown up , degenerated from his Father's Martial Valour , and by his ill management , lost what his Father had got , eclipsing thereby the English Glory . He was , after the death of Charles VI. who died not long after Henry V. Proclaim'd King of France . proclaimed King of France in Paris . In opposition to him , the Dauphin , Charles VII . also declared himself King of France , with whom sided the Bravest among the French , and a great many Scots were sent to his assistance . But Philip Duke of Burgundy , and John Duke of Britainy , held to the Confederacy with the English , which was renewed at that time . And then they began to fall upon one another with great fury : For the French received a great Defeat near Crevant in Burgundy , 1423. and were soundly beaten near Verneuil . 1424. In the Year 1425 the French had besieged St. Jaques de Beuveron with Forty thousand Men , the Garrison being reduc'd to great extremity , prayed with a loud voice to St. George of Salisbury : The Besiegers hearing the name of Salisbury very frequently among the Besieged , supposed that the Earl of Salisbury was coming to raise the Siege ; whereat the French were so terrify'd that they run away for fear of his Name . This is certain , that the English , for a while , were Masters where-ever they came , but before Orleans the carreer of their Fortune was first stopt . For , tho , during that Siege , they beat the French , who came to cut off their Provisions ( which Battel is commonly called the Battel of the Flemmings ) and the City would have surrender'd it self to the Duke of Burgundy , which the English would not accept of ; yet did they not only lose in that Siege the brave Earl of Salisbury , but also the French , The Maid 〈◊〉 Orleans . being encouraged by a Maid called Joan , that was born in Lorraine , beat the English from before Orleans . This Maid did several great exploits against the English , and led , her self in person , King Charles to his Coronation in Rheims . At last she was taken Prisoner by the English in an Encounter , who carried her to Roan , where they burnt her for a Witch . But because the English perceived , that after the Coronation of Charles , a great many Cities sided with him , they also called over their King Henry out of England , and crowned him King of France in Paris . He was crowned in Paris . About the same time , a Truce was concluded by Mediation of the Pope , 1432. for six Years ; but it lasted not long , for the French , during the time of the Truce , possess'd themselves of several places , which they had brought over to their side by cunning Insinuations , pretending , That any thing gained without open violence did not violate the Truce . And King Charles's Maxim was , Not to fight with the English , The English decline in France . but to strive to get Advantages over them rather by Policy than open force . But that which gave a great blow to the English , was , That the Duke of Burgundy having taken a distaste at the English upon some slight occasion , was reconciled to King Charles . There were some small Differences arisen betwixt the Duke of Bedford and the Duke of Burgundy ; to compose which , a meeting was appointed at St. Omer : But the time being near at hand , a Dispute arose , which of them should appear there first ; it being supposed , that he who should come first , did thereby yield the Precedency to the other ; wherefore the Duke of Bedford refused to come first , alledging , That he being Regent of France , ought not in that Quality to give preference to a Vassal of France . But the Duke of Burgundy stood upon his right of being Sovereign of the place where they were to meet ; 1435. so that the meeting being set aside , the Duke of Burgundy broke quite off with the English , The Duke of Burgundy leaves the English and is reconciled to Charles . and afterwards assisted King Charles against them . The death of the Duke of Bedford , proved another Misfortune to the English . For the Duke of Somerset and the Duke of York both pretended to his place ; and tho' the latter did obtain it , yet did the first always oppose his Designs , so that , before the new Regent arrived , Paris , which had been seventeen Years in the possession of the English , and a great many other Cities , did surrender themselves to King Charles . 1436. Yet did the Duke of Gloucester beat the Duke of Burgundy before Calais , making great havock in Flanders , Artois and Hainault ; and the brave Talbot did considerable mischief to the French . The occasion of the Troubles in England . But when afterwards , by a Truce made with France , the fury of the War ceased for a little time , there was a Foundation laid in England for intestine Commotions . The King had promised marriage to the Daughter of the Earl of Armagnac , to prevent which , the French King had made both the Earl and his Daughter Prisoners . The Earl of Suffolk , who was then Ambassadour in France , did propose thereupon , without having received any Instructions to that purpose from the King , a Match betwixt the King and Margaret Daughter of Renè , Duke of Anjou and King of Naples and Sicily , and afterwards persuaded the King to ratifie the same . This Match was mightily opposed by the Duke of Gloucester , the King's Uncle , who alledged , That her Father had only the bare Titles of King and Duke ; and that besides this , great Injury was done thereby to the first Bride , viz. to the Daughter of the Count of Armagnac . Notwithstanding this , the Match went forward , and to obtain the Bride of the French , Anjou and Maine were given them as a Recompence . The King being thus led away by the Queen and his Favourites , her first design was to revenge her self upon the Duke of Gloucester , whom she accused of Male Administration , and after she had got him committed to Prison , caused him privately to be murther'd . The death of so innocent a Man did afterwards fall heavy upon the King : For the French , 1449. not long after , took from them all Normandy , The English driven out of France . the English , by reason of a Rebellion in Ireland , not being in a capacity to send thither speedy and sufficient Relief . They were also beaten out of Aquitain , so that they had nothing left them in France , but Calais , and some neighbouring places ; neither could they , afterwards , ever get footing again in France . The occasion of this sudden loss . This sudden loss was occasioned by the carelessness of the English Garrisons , that were not provided with able Governours , as also by the Pride of the English , whereby they were become hatefull to the French Subjects : But the chief cause was , Richard Duke of York , who had underhand raised intestine Commotions in England : For he being sensible of the King's Weakness , and how ill satisfy'd the People were with the Queen's management of Affairs , hoped , by fomenting and raising Troubles in the Kingdom , to make way for himself to obtain the Crown ; and this he did , principally , because he pretended to have the best right to the Crown , being descended , by his Mother's side , from Lionel Duke of Clarence , third Son of King Edward III. whereas Henry was descended from John of Gaunt , fourth Son of the said Edward III. but publickly he profess'd , That his Intention was only to remove from the King's Person his pernicious Favourites , and especially the Duke of Somerset . Having therefore got an Army on foot , he fought with the King's Forces , in which Battel the Duke of Somerset was slain , and the Duke of York thereupon declared Protector of the King's Person and the Kingdom . But this Agreement did not last long , and things came quickly again to an open War , wherein the Duke of York being worsted , was forced to fly into Ireland . But not long after the Earl of Warwick did beat the King's Army , and taking him Prisoner , the Duke of York was again declared Protector of the King and Kingdom , and lawfull Heir of the Crown ; under condition that Henry should retain the Title of King during his life . But Matters did not remain long in this condition , for the Queen , who was fled into Scotland , marched with a great Army against the Duke of York , who was kill'd in the Battel , and all the Prisoners were executed . But his Son , in conjunction with the Earl of Warwick , raised another Army , and marching up to London , the young Duke of York was there proclaimed King by the Name of Edward IV. 1460.

§ . 16. Edward IV. of the House of York . Thus Edward IV. came to the Crown , but could not maintain it without great difficulty : For Henry had got together a very powerfull Army in the North , against whom Edward fought the most bloody Battel that was ever fought in England , A bloody Battel betwixt Edward and Henry . there being 36796 Men killed upon the spot , because Edward knowing his Enemies to be superiour in number , had ordered , not to give Quarter to any of them : After which Battel Henry retired into Scotland , from whence he returned with another Army , and being again defeated , with much adoe got safely into Scotland . But returning again incognito into England , he was taken Prisoner and committed to the Tower . This Prince , would have made a better Priest than a King of such a Nation , that was distracted by the Animosities of several Factions . But the Tragedy did not end here : The King had sent the Earl of Warwick into France , to conclude a Match betwixt him and Bona the Daughter of Lewis Duke of Savoy . But the King having in the mean time suddenly married Elizabeth , the Widow of John Gray , the Earl was so dissatisfy'd at it , that he declared for King Henry ; and having brought over to his Party the Duke of Clarence , the Brother of King Edward , he fell upon a sudden upon Edward , and took him Prisoner ; but by the carelessness of his Keepers he escaped not long after . And tho' an Agreement was then made betwixt them , yet was it of no long continuance , for the Earl of Warwick's Forces were routed , and he forced to fly into France . As soon as he had recover'd himself a little , he returned into England , where he was so well received , that he forced King Edward to fly into the Netherlands to Charles Duke of Burgundy : And King Henry , Henry taken out of Prison and set on the Throne . after he had been nine Years a Prisoner in the Tower , was again set upon the Throne . But Edward having received some Assistance from the Duke of Burgundy , Edward returns into England . returned again into England ; but perceiving that but few came in to him , he made an Agreement with King Henry , which he confirm'd with a solemn Oath , That he would not undertake any thing against him , but be contented with his own Estate : Yet notwithstanding his Oath , he underhand gathered what Forces he could . The Earl of Warwick therefore marched towards him , when the Duke of Clarence , being reconcil'd to his Brother King Edward , went over with all his Forces to him . This gave a signal blow to the Earl of Warwick , who being now not strong enough to oppose him , was forced to let him march up to London , where he was joyfully received by the Londoners , to whom , as 't is said , he owed much Money , and was very acceptable to their Wives ; Henry a second time Prisoner 147● , and murther'd by the Duke of Gloucester . but King Henry was committed again to the Tower . Then King Edward attack'd the Earl of Warwick , where a bloody Battel was fought , the Victory seeming , at first , to incline on the Earl's side : But some of his Troops , by reason of a thick Fogg , charged one upon another , which lost him the Battel , he remaining , with a great many other persons of Quality , slain in the Field . There happened also this misfortune , That King Henry's Lady and his Son Edward having got together very considerable Forces in France , could not come time enough to his assistance , having been detained by contrary Winds ; and coming afterwards into England , she was taken Prisoner , and her Son kill'd ; and King Henry , also , was murthered by the Hand of the bloody Duke of Gloucester . England being thus restor'd to its Tranquility at home , Charles , Duke of Burgundy , who was in hopes of getting an advantage by a War betwixt England and France , stirr'd up King Edward against Lewis XI . King of France . But King Lewis , who was not ignorant how mischievous the Confederacy of England and Burgundy might prove to him , did endeavour to detain the English King with fair words , and to render the Duke of Burgundy suspected to him ; which had the design'd effect with Edward , who considered with himself , That Charles Duke of Burgundy having besieged Nuys , did not send him the promised Succours ; so that the Peace was easily concluded , the French having been very liberal to the English . To confirm this Peace , King Lewis proposed a Congress to be held betwixt him and Edward at a certain place , where he , without making any further difficulty , appeared first in person , and bestowed a good quantity of Wine upon the English Souldiers , who soon after returned with their King , who had got but little Honour in this Expedition into England . But he behaved himself better against the Scots , to whom he did considerable mischief . In the mean time the Duke of Gloucester had rid himself of his elder Brother , the Duke of Clarence , thereby to advance himself one step nearer to the Crown . At last King Edward being now resolved to enter again into a War with France ( since King Lewis made a very slight account of what he had promised in the last Peace , after he was once rid of his Enemy ) he fell sick , and died in the Year 1483.

§ . 17. Edward V. After the death of Edward IV. his Son Edward V. a Child of eleven Years of Age was proclaimed King , but scarce enjoyed this Title ten Weeks . For his Uncle Richard , Duke of Gloucester , the most bloody and wicked Man that ever the World beheld , immediately made it his business to set the Crown upon his own Head . Wherefore he first of all secured to himself the Tuition of the King 's and his Brother's Persons , by making away their most trusty Friends . Afterwards , by the help of some Impudent Priests , he got it spread abroad , That Edward IV. was born in Adultery , and that consequently the Crown did of right belong to himself , as being the most like his Father . At last , the Duke of Buckingham did insinuate into the Lord Mayor of London , That the Crown ought to be offered to Richard ; and his Proposal being approved by the Acclamations of a few Villains set on for that purpose , it was divulged , That the People had conferr'd the Crown upon Richard . Richard III. Having by these Intrigues obtain'd the Crown , Richard III. got himself proclaimed King ; 1483. and having been crowned , he caused the innocent King Edward V. Murthers his Nephews . and his Brother , miserably to be murthered . But soon after his Coronation a difference arose betwixt him and the Duke of Buckingham , who had been chiefly instrumental in helping him to the Crown . He therefore leaving the Court , began to make a Party against the King , with an intention , to set the Crown upon the Head of Henry Earl of Richmond , who was then an Exile in Britainy . And tho' the Duke of Buckingham's Plot was discovered , and he beheaded , yet was not the Design stopt . For the Earl of Richmond set fail with a great Fleet out of Britainy , but being driven by contrary Winds on the Coast of Normandy , he sought Aid of Charles VIII . King of France , which he readily granted him . A great many English , also , went over to him , who swore Allegiance to him , he promising them upon Oath , That he would marry the Princess Elizabeth , Daughter of Edward IV. But Henry was within an ace of having been delivered up to Richard by the Treachery of one Pieter Landois , Treasurer of the Duke of Britainy , who had received a great Summ of Money from Richard for undertaking it , for which reason he was afterwards hang'd by his Master's order . Richard also had an Intention of marrying the Princess Elizabeth , and therefore had privately made away his former Lady , He murther 's his Wife . but was obliged to delay the consummation of the Match , by reason of the approaching danger from Henry : Henry Earl of Richmond invades England . Who to prevent this intended Match , did in all haste sail out of France , and landing in Wales , was kindly received by most . Not long after he gave Battel to Richard , where William Stanley , with some thousands of Men , went over to Henry ; and besides this , a great many of Richard's Souldiers refusing to fight , Richard himself was slain in the Field , and the Crown being immediately there put upon Henry's Head , he was proclaimed King . 1485.

§ . 18. Henry VII . Hitherto England had been miserably torn to pieces by the bloody Wars betwixt the Houses of York and Lancaster , the first whereof bore a White , the latter a Red Rose in their Shields . For Henry IV. of the House of Lancaster , had driven Richard II. from the Throne ; Edward IV. of the House of York , dethroned again his Grandson Henry VI. And Henry VII . of the House of Lancaster , took from Edward the IVth's Brother , Richard III. both his Crown and Life . He united the White and Red Roses . This King Henry marrying the Daughter of Edward IV. united the Red and White Roses , and by his singular Wisdom , did again settle the State of the Kingdom . Yet was he not altogether free from Disturbances at home . Lambert Symnel . For first of all , one Lambert Symnel , Son to a Baker , taking upon him the Name and Person of Edward Earl of Warwick , caused himself to be proclaimed King in Ireland . This Comedy was first invented by a Priest , and encouraged by Margaret , the Widow of Charles Duke of Burgundy , Sister to Edward IV. who , to spite Henry , gave them all the Assistance she could . This Symnel transported an Army out of Ireland into England , but was routed by Henry ; and being taken Prisoner , was made a Turnspit in the King's Kitchin . In the Year 1491 Henry undertook an Expedition against France , He makes an Expedition in●● France , and besieged Bologne . But the Emperour Maximilian failing in his promises of giving him Assistance , he in consideration of a good Summ of Money made a Peace with France . In the mean time , Margaret Dutchess Dowager of Burgundy , had set up another Impostor , whose Name was Perkin Warbeck . Perkin Warbeck . He pretended to be Richard , a younger Son of King Edward IV. and knew so well how to act his part , that he got a considerable Party in Ireland . From thence he went to Paris , where he was very well received , France being then engaged in a War with England : But a Peace being concluded betwixt them , he retir'd to the Dutchess Margaret's Court. From thence he returned into Ireland , and afterwards came into Scotland , where being splendidly received by that King , he was married to one of his Kinswomen , and enter'd England with a confiderable Army . This business might have proved very dangerous to England , since there were , at the same time , great Tumults in England , arisen about some new Taxes . But the Rebels were beaten , and the Scots obliged to retire with great loss into Scotland . The Scots made thereupon a Peace with England , promising , among other things , not to uphold , by any ways , the Impostor Perkin , who fled from thence into Ireland , and so came into Cornwall , where he caused himself to be proclaimed King : But perceiving that few came over to his side , and the King's Forces coming upon him , he took sanctuary in a Church , and surrender'd himself to the King , who committed him a Prisoner to the Tower ; but he having twice made an attempt to escape , was at last hang'd according to his demerits . In the Year 1501 , a Marriage was concluded betwixt James IV. He marries his Daughter Margaret to the King of Scotland . King of Scotland , and Margaret the Daughter of Henry , which afterwards united England and Scotland under one King . Arthur , also , eldest Son of Henry , married Catharine Daughter of Ferdinand the Catholick . But the Prince dying a few Weeks after the Wedding , in the sixteenth Year of his Age , and Henry being unwilling to give back the Dowry , and desirous to maintain the new Alliance with Ferdinand , married the said Catharine to his second Son Henry , who was then but twelve Years of Age , having obtained a Dispensation from Pope Julius II. under pretence that there had been no carnal knowledge betwixt them ; which afterwards proved the cause of great Alterations . This King is reckoned among the wisest of his Age , and the only thing which is reprehended in him , is , That he had a way , by false Accusations against the rich , to squeeze out of them great Summs of Money from them . He died in the Year 1509.

§ . 19. Henry VIII . Henry VIII . immediately upon his first accession to the Throne , celebrated the Nuptials with his Brother's Widow , more to fulfill his Father's Will than out of his own Inclination ; yet as long as he lived with her in Wedlock he govern'd the Realm very laudably , and in the Court nothing was seen but Plays and Diversions . As to his Transactions abroad , upon the persuasions of Pope Julius II. He enters into League with Ferdinand and the Pope , and Ferdinand the Catholick , he enter'd into a Consederacy with them against France , which Confederacy was pretended to be made for the defence of the Holy See . 1512. Ferdinand also put him in hopes of recovering Guienne ; wherefore Henry sent an Army into Biscay , His Expedition against France . to fall in conjunction with the Spaniards into Guienne . But Ferdinand having rather his Eye upon Navarre , and being negligent in sending timely Succours to the English , they returned home without doing any thing . A second . In the Year 1513 Henry enter'd France with a great Army , where he lost his time in the taking of Terovane and Tournay , which was wholly destroyed in spight of all the Attempts of the French to relieve it , tho' Tournay was redeemed by Francis I. with a good Summ of Money . But at that time Henry did not pursue his Advantage , partly out of carelessness , incident to young Men , partly , because he had carried on this War , not so much for his own Interest , as in favour of the Pope , and so returned into England . During the absence of Henry , An Invasion of the Scots . James IV. King of Scotland , upon instigation of the French invaded England , but received a great overthrow , himself being killed in the Battel . In the Year next following , Henry perceiving that his Father-in-law Ferdinand did only impose upon him , concluded a Peace with France , giving his Sister Mary in marriage to King Lewis XII . In the Year 1522 Henry again denounced War against Francis I. He makes a second War against France . and sent considerable Forces into France , which , nevertheless , both in the same and next following Year did nothing of moment ; and the Scots , on the other side , obtained not any advantages against the English . But after Francis was taken Prisoner near Pavia , it seem'd that Henry had met with a fair opportunity to give a great blow to France , more especially , since he had before prepared a Fleet , which lay ready to make a Descent in Normandy , yet he left Charles and made Peace with France . And Charles , after he thought he had obtained his aim , did not make any great account of England , leaving the Princess Mary , Daughter of Henry , to whom he had promised Marriage , for the Princess of Portugal , whom he married . And whereas he used formerly to write to the King with his own Hand , and subscribe himself , Your Son and trusty Friend ; he now caused his Letters to be writ by his Secretary , subscribing only his Name , Charles . And truly it seemed very necessary for Henry to keep a little the Ballance . Tho' a great many are of opinion , That Cardinal Woolsey had a great hand in this business , who was no great Friend of Charles V. because he had not promoted him to the Papal Dignity , and had denied him the Archbishoprick of Toledo , of which he had put him in hopes at first ; neither did he subscribe himself any more Your Son and Cousin , as he used to do . But however it be , Henry at that time saved France from an imminent danger . The Divorce of Henry VIII . After he had lived very peaceably and well with his Queen for the space of twenty Years , he began to have a scruple of Conscience , Whether he could lawfully live in Wedlock with his Brother's Widow ; which scruple he pretended was raised in him first by the President of Paris , who was sent to treat concerning a Marriage betwixt Mary Daughter of Henry , and the second Son of Francis . Some say , that he being weary of her , was fallen in love with Anna Bullen , and found out this way to be rid of her . Yet this seems not so probable to some , since he did not marry the said Anna Bullen till three Years after he pretended to the scruple of Conscience ; whereas the heat of Love does not usually admit of such delays . Some will have it , that Cardinal Woolsey raised this scruple first in him , on purpose to nettle Charles V. and to please Francis I. in hopes , after this Divorce , to make up a Match betwixt Henry and the Dutchess of Alenson , Sister of Francis . But however it be , the business was brought before the Pope , who gave a Commission to the Cardinal Campegius , to enquire , in conjunction with Woolsey , into the matter : 'T is said , That the Pope was willing to gratify Henry , and for that purpose had sent a Bull to Campegius , yet with this caution , to keep it by him till further order . But when he afterwards saw Charles V. to prove so successfull , he durst not venture to do any thing that might displease him , wherefore he ordered Campegius to burn the Bull , and to delay the business to the utmost . The Queen also refused to answer to their Commission , but appealed to the Pope in person ; besides , Charles V. and his Brother Ferdinand had protested against this Commission . Woolsey did also perceive , that the King was fallen in love with Anna Bullen , which being likely to prove prejudicial to his Authority , he persuaded the Pope underhand , not to give his consent unto this Divorce . The fall● of Woolsey . Henry being informed what Intrigues the Cardinal was carrying on against him , humbled the greatness of this haughty Prelate , who died in the Year next following in great misery . And Henry being made sensible , that the Pope regarded more his own Interest than the merits of the Cause , he forbid , that any body should hence forward appeal to Rome , or send thither any Money for Church Benefices . He therefore sent to several Universities in France and Italy to desire their Opinions in this matter , who all unanimously agreed in this , That such a Marriage was against the Laws of God ; and having once more , by his Ambassadours , sollicited the Pope , but in vain , to decide the matter , the King had the same adjudged in Parliament , and divorced himself from her , 1532. yet conversed with her in a very friendly manner ever after till her death , except , that he did not bed with her since the time when this scruple first arose . He marries Anna Bullen . Some Months after he was married to Anna Bullen , by whom he had Elizabeth , who was afterwards Queen . He abrogates the Pope's Supremacy . Anno 1535 the King caused himself to be declared Supream Head of the Church of England , abrogating thereby all the Pope's Authority in that kingdom , and John Fisher Bishop of Rochester , and Thomas Moor the Lord Chancellour , refusing to acknowledge him as such , it cost them their Heads . Yet would Henry never receive the Doctrine of Luther or Zwinglius , but continued in the Roman Communion , because he was mightily exasperated against Luther . For Henry had formerly got a Book to be published under his Name against Luther in favour of the Pope , for which he acquired the Title of Defender of the Faith , which Title the Kings of England retain to this day . But Luther setting aside all the Respect due to a King , writ an Answer to the same , full of Heat and bitter Reflections . Yet because he esteemed the Monks as a sort of people that were not only useless , Monasteries demolished . but also such as depending on the Pope , might prove very pernicious to him at home , he gave free leave to all Monks and Nuns to go out of the Convents and Nunneries ; and by degrees converted unto his own use the Revenues of all Nunneries and Convents , Colleges and Chappels , as also those of the Order of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem ; nevertheless he employed some part of them in erecting six new Episcopal Sees , and Cathedral Churches , and to the advancing of Learning in the Universities . A great part also he gave away or sold for a little Money to great Families , intending thereby to oblige them for the future to maintain the alterations he had made . It is reported , that these Church Revenues which were so reduced , did amount yearly to 186512 l. or as some others will have it , to 500752 l. He also abolished the superstitious worship of Images , and made some other alterations in Religious Worship , so that , in effect , he laid the Foundation of the Reformation . Nevertheless . England was at that time in a miserable condition ; Protestants and Papists executed . for a great many Roman Catholicks , that would not acknowledge the King for the Supream Head of the English Church were executed : And a great many more Protestants received the same punishment , because they would not own the Corporal presence of the Body of Christ in the Sacrament ; tho' this effusion of blood was not so much caused by the King as by the Bishops , who had first brought in use such rigorous Laws , and now executed them with as much severity . War with Scotland . In the Year 1543 , another War happened with the Scots , who making an Inrode into England were beaten by a few English ; which did grieve King James V. to that degree , that he died for trouble , leaving behind him one only Daughter Mary , whom Henry would have engaged to his Son Edward , thereby by to unite these two Kingdoms ; and the business was like to have succeeded very well , if the Archbishop of St. Andrews had not opposed it . Henry also enter'd into a League with the Emperour against France , He enters into a League with the Emperour against France . wherein it was agreed , to join their Armies of 80000 Foot and 22000 Horse near Paris , to plunder that City , and to ravage the whole Country as far as the Loire . But neither of them acted according to the Agreement , for Henry wasted his time in the Siege and taking of Boulogne , which he afterwards , by the Peace concluded in the Year 1546 , promised to restore to France within the space of eight Years , in consideration of the Summ of 800000 Crowns to be paid him for the same ; which was performed accordingly under Edward VI. 1550. Neither do I believe that Henry was in good earnest by ruining the French to give such great advantages to Charles V. After his Divorce with Catharine of Arragon , he was very unfortunate in his Marriages ; Anna Bullen beheaded . for Anna Bullen was beheaded for Adultery and Incest , tho' some are of opinion , that it was more the Protestant Religion than the Crime which proved fatal to her . It is certain , that the Protestant Princes of Germany did so resent this matter , that whereas they intended to have made Henry the Head of their League , they afterwards would hold no correspondency with him . His other Wives . After Anna Bullen he married Jane Seymour , Mother to Edward VI. who died in Child-bed . Then he married Anna of Cleves , whom he also pretending I know not what bodily infirmity in her , quickly dismiss'd . The fifth was Catharine Howard , who was beheaded for Adultery . The sixth Catharine Parre , Widow of the Lord Latimer , who outlived him . Henry died in the Year 1547.

§ . 20. Edward VI. Edward VI. was nine Years of age when he came to the Crown , during whose Minority his Uncle , the Duke of Somerset had the Administration of Affairs . His first design was to force the Scots to agree to a Match betwixt Edward and their young Queen Mary , wherefore he fell into Scotland , and overthrew them near Muskelborough in a great Battel . Nevertheless he miss'd his aim , for the Scots sent their Queen into France , who was there married to the Dauphin , afterwards King of France by the Name of Francis II. Under this King Edward the Reformed Religion was publickly established in England , and the Mass quite abolished ; which occasioned great disturbances in the Kingdom , which were nevertheless happily suppress'd . In the Year 1550 there was a Peace concluded betwixt England , France and Scotland , when also Boulogne was restor'd to the French . But King Edward falling sick , the Duke of Northumberland , who had before destroyed the Duke of Somerset , persuaded King Edward , under pretence of settling the Protestant Religion , to exclude by his last Will and Testament his two Sisters , Mary and Elizabeth ( for of the Queen of the Scots they made but little account at that time ) from the Succession of the Crown , and to settle it upon Jane Grey , Daughter of the Duke of Suffolk , whom he had by Mary Daughter of Henry VII . which afterwards proved fatal both to Jane and the Author . For after the death of Edward , the Duke of Northumberland caused Jane to be proclaimed Queen in the City of London ; 155● . but Mary eldest Sister of Edward did immediately lay claim to the Crown in her Letters to the Privy Council : Lady Jane Grey proclaimed Queen . And Letters proving ineffectual , they began to come to blows ; but most of the Nobility , unto whom Mary promis'd not to make any alteration in Religion , did side with her ; and a part of the Army and Fleet , most of the Privy Counsellors , and the City of London , taking her part proclaimed her Queen . Northumberland himself being now willing to go with the tide , did proclaim Mary Queen in Cambridge , notwithstanding which he afterwards lost his Head .

§ . 21. Mary . Queen Mary caused the Roman Catholick Religion and Mass , which were abolished in her Brother's time , Restores Popery . as also the Pope's Authority to be restor'd in England , she used the Protestants very hardly , of whom a great many were punished with death , Yet was she not able to restore the Church Revenues , for fear of exasperating the greatest Families , who had them in their possession . The Pope did also send Cardinal Poole , to re-unite the Kingdom to the holy See of Rome . This Queen Mary was married to Philip Son of Charles V. Marries Philip of Spain . who was afterwards King of Spain , yet under these Conditions , That she should have the sole disposal of all Offices and Revenues of the Kingdom , and if a Son was born , he should , besides the Crown of England , inherit Burgundy and the Netherlands : Don Carlos , who was born of a former Wife , should be Heir of Spain and all the Italian Provinces , and in case he died without Issue , this should also inherit his part . But no Children came of this marriage , Mary being pretty well in Years , for she was thirty Years before proposed in Marriage . And there were some , who being dissatisfy'd at this Match , raised Tumults ; among whom was the Duke of Suffolk , Father of Jane , Lady Jane , &c. beheaded . who had hitherto been a Prisoner in the Tower , but she and her Husband Guilford , and her Father , paid with their Heads for it . It was within an ace but that Elizabeth , who was afterwards Queen , had also undergone the same fate , if Philip and the Spaniards had not interceded for her , not out of any affection to her person , The reason why Philip interceded for the Lady Elizabeth . but because they knew , that after her , the next Heir to the Crown of England was Mary Queen of Scotland , who being married to the Dauphin of France , they feared , lest by this means England and Scotland might be united with France . Among other Articles in the Marriage Contract of Queen Mary , it was agreed , That she should not be obliged to engage her self in the Wars which her Husband , Philip , should carry on against France : Notwithstanding which , when Philip afterwards was engaged in a War with France , she sent to his assistance some of her best Forces , who by their Bravery chiefly obtain'd the Victory near St. Quintin ; The Battel of St. Quintin . for which reason Philip gave the City to be plundered by the English . Henry II. King of France , taking hold of this opportunity , Calais lost . assaulted the City of Calais , under the Command of the Duke de Guise , which being not well Garrison'd he took in a few days , and obliged all the Inhabitants to quit the City , and to leave behind them all their Gold , Silver and Jewels . He also took afterwards the two Castles of Guisnes and Hammes , and thereby drove the English quite out of France . Not long after this loss Queen Mary died . 1558.

§ . 22. Elizabeth . Elizabeth , who after the death of her Sister , was unanimously proclaimed Queen , maintain'd her Authority , and govern'd with great Prudence and Glory in the midst of a great many threatning dangers to the very end . In the beginning Philip endeavoured by all means to keep England on his side , for which reason he proposed a Marriage betwixt Elizabeth and himself , Philip desires her in marriage . promising to obtain a Dispensation from the Pope , which was nevertheless opposed by the French in the Court of Rome . Elizabeth was very unwilling to disoblige so great a Prince , who had well deserved of her ; yet on the other side , the same scruple which had caused her Father to be divorced from Catharine of Arragon , by a parity of reason , did remain with her ; she considered , especially , that the said Divorce must needs be esteemed unjust , if the Pope's Dispensation was allowed of ; since it had been alledged as a fundamental reason of the said Divorce , that the Pope had no power to dispense in any cases which were contrary to God's Law : She resolved therefore not to have any further concerns with the Pope , and to give a friendly refusal to Philip. Then she , by an Act of Parliament , constituted the Protestant Episcopacy , yet not at once , but by degrees , taking away from the Papists the free exercise of their Religion , and under several Penalties and Fines obliged every one to frequent the Protestant Churches on Sunday . Every body also was obliged by a solemn Oath to acknowledge her the Supream Governour in England , even in Spiritual Matters ; which Oath was among 9400 , who were possess'd of Church Benefices , taken by all , except 189 who refused the same , among whom were fourteen Bishops . She kept stedfast to the established Episcopal Church Government , tho' she met with great opposition from two sorts of people , viz. Papists and Paritaus . the Papists and Puritans . These having conceived a great hatred against Episcopacy , and all other Ceremonies which had the least resemblance of Popery , were for having every thing regulated according to the way of Geneva . Tho' their number increased daily , yet the Queen kept them pretty well under . But the Papists made several attempts against her Life and Crown ; for her envious Enemies did erect several Seminaries or Schools for the English Nation in foreign Countries ; Poreign Seminaries . viz. at Douay , at Rheims , at Rome and Valedolid ; all which were erected for the Instructing of the English Youth in these Principles , viz. That the Pope had the Supream Power over Kings , and as soon as a King was declared a Heretick by him , the Subjects were thereby absolved from their Allegiance due to him , and that it was meritorious work to murther such a King . Out of these Schools Emissaries and Priests were sent into England , whose business was there to propagate the Roman Catholick Religion ; but more especially , to instruct the People in the abovementioned Doctrines . To these associated themselves some Desperado's , who , after Pope Pius V. had excommunicated the Queen , were frequently conspiring against her Life . But most of them got no other advantage by it , than to make work for the Hang-man , and occasioned that the Papists were stricter kept than before . Mary Queen of Scotland . Mary also , Queen of Scotland , raised abundance of troubles against Queen Elizabeth ; she being the next Heiress to the Crown of England , did , with the assistance of the Duke of Guise , endeavour to have Queen Elizabeth declared by the Pope Illegitimate ( which the Spaniards underhand opposed ) and both she and the Dauphin assumed the Arms of England , which undertaking proved afterwards fatal to Queen Mary . For Elizabeth sided with the Earl of Murray , natural Brother of Queen Mary , whose main endeavour was to chase the French out of Scotland , and to establish there the Protestant Religion , both which he effected with the assistance of Queen Elizabeth . This Queen Mary being after the death of Francis II. returned into Scotland , was married to her Kinsman Henry Darley , one of the handsomest Men in England , by whom she had James VI. But her Love to him grew quickly cold ; for a certain Italian Musician , whose name was David Ritz was so much in favour with the Queen , that a great many persuaded Henry , that she kept unlawfull company with him . He being thus animated , with the assistance of some Gentlemen , pull'd David Ritz out of the Room where he was then waiting upon the Queen at Table , and kill'd him immediately . From whence King James , with whom Queen Mary was then big with Child , had this natural infirmity , That he could not see a naked Sword , his Mother having at that time been frighted with naked Swords . This so exasperated the Queen against her Husband , that he soon after , The Queen of Scots married Bothwell , who murthered her Husband . as was suppos'd , was in the Night time murthered by George Bothwell , who was afterwards married to the Queen . The Earl of Murray , with some others , did publish , That this Murther was committed by the instigation of the Queen , and George Buchanan , a Creature of the Earl's , does boldly affirm the same in his Writings . Yet there are some , who say , That the Calumnies as well concerning David Ritz , as also concerning the death of Henry Darley , were raised against the Queen by the Artifices of the Earl of Murray , thereby to defame and dethrone her . But however it be , there was an Insurrection made against the Queen , and Bothwell , whom she had married , was forced to fly the Land ( who died in Denmark some Years after in a miserable condition ) and she being made a Prisoner , made her escape in the Year 1568. But the Forces which she had gathered being routed , She was made a Prisoner in England . she retir'd into England , where she also was made a Prisoner . There she enter'd into a Conspiracy against the Queen Elizabeth , with the Duke of Norfolk , whom she promised to marry , hoping thereby to obtain the Crown of England . But the Plot being discover'd , the Duke was made a Prisoner , but was afterwards released . And being again discover'd to have afresh pursued his former design , 1572. paid for it with his Head . Queen Mary was confined to a more close Imprisonment . Several Treaties were set on foot to procure her Liberty , but no sufficient security could be given to Queen Elizabeth . Wherefore Queen Mary growing at last impatient , and being overcome by ill Counsellours , enter'd into a Conspiracy with Spain , the Pope , and the Duke of Guise against Elizabeth : Which Plot having been long carried on privately , did break out at last , 1586. and some Letters of her own hand writing having been produced among other matters , a Commission was granted to try the Queen ; by vertue of which she received Sentence of Death ; which being confirm'd by the Parliament , great application was made to the Queen for Execution , which Queen Elizabeth would not grant for a great while , especially , because her Son James and France did make great intercessions in her behalf . At last the French Ambassadour d' Aubespine , having suborned a Ru●●ian to murther Queen Elizabeth , her Friends urged vehemently to hasten the Execution , which she granted , and signed the Warrant , commanding , nevertheless , Secretary Davidson to keep it by him till farther order : But he advising thereupon with the Privy Council , it was order'd , that Execution should be done upon her immediately . Beheaded , Queen Elizabeth seemed much concerned there-at , 1587. and removed Davidson from his place . King James also was grievously exasperated , and some of his Friends advised him to join with Spain and to revenge his Mother's death . But Queen Elizabeth found a way to appease his Anger , and there was ever after a very good understanding betwixt them to the very last . The Duke of Guise and his party were great Enemies to Queen Elizabeth in France , Queen Elizabeth assists the Huguenots . and she , on the other hand , assisted the Huguenots with Men and Money , who surrender'd into her Hands as a pledge , 1562. Havre de Grace , but her Forces were obliged to quit the same in the Year next following . Neither could she ever get Calais restored to her , 1559. tho' in the Peace concluded at Chasteau en Cambresis , the same was promised to her . With Henry the IVth . she lived in a good understanding , sending frequently to his assistance both Men and Money . But with Spain she was at variance about the Rebellious Netherlanders , to whom she not only granted a safe retreat in her Country and Harbours , but also assisted them , first underhand , and afterwards openly , both with Men and Money , they having surrender'd unto her as a pledge , Flushing , Brill and Rammeken : But she would never accept of the Sovereignty of the Netherlands , The Sovereignty of the Netherlands twice offered her . which being twice offered her , she refused as often , out of weighty and wise Considerations . She sent , however , the Earl of Leicester , her Favourite , thither as Governour , who did not acquire much Reputation ; but having put things rather in confusion , he was recalled in the second Year . She did also great damage to the Spaniards on their Coasts , and in the West Indies , by Sir Francis Drake and others , 1595. and the Earl of Essex took from them Cadiz ; but quitted it immediately after . On the other side , Spain was continually busie in raising Commotions and Conspiracies against her . And because the Spaniards were of Opinion , That England might be sooner conquer'd than the Netherlands , and that the latter could not be subdued without the other , they equipp'd a Fleet which they called the Invincible Armado , wherewith they intended to invade England . The Armado defeated . Which Fleet , to the Immortal Glory of the English Nation being partly destroy'd by them , and many miserably torn to pieces by Tempests , did return home in a very miserable condition . Spain also supported constantly the Rebels in Ireland , who were very troublesome to Queen Elizabeth , tho' they were generally beaten by her Forces , except in the Year 1596 , when they soundly beat the English . Wherefore the Queen sent thither the Earl of Essex , who did nothing worth mentioning . And after his return , the Queen giving him a severe Reprimand , and ordering him to be kept a Prisoner , he was so exasperated at it , that tho' he was reconcil'd to the Queen , he endeavoured to raise an Insurrection in London , Essex heheaded . which cost him his Head . Tho' the Spaniards were twice repulsed and chased out of Ireland with considerable loss , yet the Rebellion lasted till the very end of her life . Neither could a Peace be concluded betwixt her and the Spaniards as long as she lived : For tho' a Treaty was appointed to be held at Boulogne , 1600 ▪ by the Mediation of Henry IV. yet the same was immediately broke off , because the English did dispute Precedency with the Spaniards . This Queen could never be brought to take a Resolution to marry , tho' her Subjects did greatly desire it , and she had great Offers made her ; amongst whom were , besides Philip , Charles Archduke of Austria , Eric King of Sweden , the Duke de Anjou , and his Brother the Duke de Alenson , the Earl of Leicester , &c. It was her custom not to give a flat denial to such as sued for her in Marriage , but she used to amuse them with hopes , whereby she made them her Friends : For she treated with Charles Archduke of Austria for seven Years together , and with the Duke of Alenson she was gone so far , as that the Marriage Contract was made , yet was it so drawn as that a way was found to annul the same afterwards . Under her Reign the English Trade was first established in Turkey and the East Indies , the finest Coin , as also the Manufactury of Serges and Bays was settled in England about the same time . This Queen also brought first into Reputation the English Naval Strength , She was jealous of her Power at Sea . which she was so jealous of , that , tho' she supported the Netherlanders against the Spaniards , yet would she never consent , that the Netherlanders should so augment their Sea Forces , as that thereby they might be able to contest with England at Sea . This Maxim , which seem'd so necessary for England , was not regarded by King James , he being a lover of Peace : And King Charles I. having always his Hands full with his Rebellious Subjects , was not in a capacity to observe it ; wherefore the Dutch Power at Sea , could neither by Cromwel , nor by Charles II. be brought down again . This most glorious , and by her Subjects , extreamly beloved Queen died in the Year 1602 , having before appointed James VI. King of Scotland , for her Successour .

§ . 23. James I. After the death of Elizabeth , James VI. King of Scotland , was with an unanimous applause proclaimed King of England . His Title to this Crown was derived from Margaret Daughter of Henry VII . who was married to James IV. King of Scotland ; whose Son James V. left one only Daughter , who was Mother of James VI. He at first shewed himself pretty favourable to the Papists , fearing , lest they might in the beginning of his Reign raise some Commotions against him . Cobham's Conspiracy . Notwithstanding which , immediately after his Coronation the Lord Cobham , Gray , and others , enter'd into a Conspiracy against him : Their main design was to root out the Line of James , 1603. and to put in his place the Marchioness d' Arbelle , she being also descended from the abovesaid Margaret Daughter of Henry VII . This Lady was after the death of her Father married to Archibald Douglass , by whom she had Margaret , who was married to Ma●thias Earl of Lenox ; and this Arbella being the Daughter of Charles Lenox , the third Son of this Earl , was , by the intercession of Spain , to have been married to the Duke of Savoy , and by this means the Popish Religion was again to be introduced into England : But the whole Plot being discover'd , the Ring-leaders were punish'd , yet not with that Severity as the hainousness of their Crime did deserve ; tho' in the Year next following , all the Jesuits and Popish Priests were , by a severe Proclamation , The Powder Plot. banish'd out of England . In the Year 1605 , some Popish Villains had hir'd a Vault under the Parliament House , which being fill'd up with a great many Barrels of Gunpowder , they intended to have blown the King , the Prince , and the whole Parliament into the Air. But this devilish Design was discover'd , for one of the Accomplices , by a Letter that was obscurely written , and deliver'd by an unknown person to a Footman of the Lord Mounteagle , did intreat him not to come the next day into the Parliament House : Which causing a suspicion in the King , all the Vaults were search'd , and the Powder found . Hereupon the Parliament made an Act , That all Subjects , by a solemn Oath , should acknowledge James for their lawfull Sovereign ; neither , that the Pope had any Authority to Dethrone Sovereigns , or to absolve Subjects from their Allegiance . He concluded a Peace with Spain , 1604. and was afterwards one of the Mediators of the Truce made betwixt Spain and Holland . His Son-in-law , the Elector Palatine being banish'd out of his Territories , he assisted only with sending of Ambassadours and proposing of an Agreement , all which the Spaniards render'd ineffectual . 1626. His Son Prince Charles was sent into Spain to marry the Infanta , where the Marriage Contract was concluded and confirmed by Oath , but the Nuptials were deferred till the next year , the Spaniards being willing to gain time , and to see how things would be carried on in Germany for the House of Austria . But when , after the Prince's return into England , the English would needs have the Restitution of the Elector Palatine inserted in the Articles , the Match was broke off , and , tho' the Parliament voted a Subsidie to be employed towards the restoring of the Elector Palatine , yet the Design came to nothing . Under this King there was a period put to the Differences and Wars betwixt England and Scotland , which hitherto had created abundance of Troubles to this Island . And that nothing of jealousie might remain betwixt these two Nations about Preference in the Royal Title , he introduced the Name of Great Britain , which comprehends both the Kingdoms . There was also set on foot a Treaty to unite both Kingdoms into one Body , but it did not succeed , because the Scots would not be Inferiour to the English . Under this King's Reign Colonies were established in Virginia , Foreign Plantations . Bermudos and Ireland ; by which means the English have extended their Dominions , but there are some , who believe that this has weakened the English at home , and that in all probability , it would have been more profitable for England to have employed those people in Manufactury and Fishing of Herrings , which produce such vast Riches to the Dutch in the very sight of the English . Yet some are also of Opinion , That it is good for the publick repose , that the unruly Multitude do not grow too numerous in England . The East India Trade was also greatly promoted at that time , but the English could not come there in competition with the Dutch , these having been before hand with them . This King died in the Year 1625.

§ . 24. His Son Charles I. succeeded him , Charles I. who , after the Spanish Match was broke off , married Henrietta Daughter of Henry IV. 1626. He equipp'd out a great Fleet against the Spaniards , War with Spain . the English landed near Cadiz , but being repulsed with loss , returned without doing any thing , and all Commerce was prohibited betwixt Spain and England . War with France . He also broke with France , and because the French Merchants had been ill treated by the English , all Commerce was also prohibited betwixt these two Nations . The English thereupon endeavoured to send Aid unto the City of Rochelle , and landing in the Isle of Rhee , besieged the Fort of St. Martin , which being valiantly defended by one Toyras , the English were repulsed with great loss . In the Year next following , they undertook to relieve Rochelle , but in vain . A Peace concluded with both . Whereupon Charles concluded a Peace with France in the Year 1629 , and in the Year next following with Spain , having by this War , waged against these two Nations , which were not so easie to be attack'd by one at the same time , gained no Reputation to the dissatisfy'd Subjects , and vast Debts . Under this King arose very violent Divisions betwixt him and the Parliament , which produced a most strange Revolution in that Kingdom . It will be very well worth our while , Causes of the intestine Commotions in England . to enquire a little more narrowly into the true causes thereof . That wife Queen , Elizabeth , held it for a constant maxim , to oppose the growing power of Spain with all her might , whereby she weaken'd Spain , and not only enrich'd her Subjects , but also exercised them in Sea Affairs , wherein consists the chief Strength and Security of this Kingdom : Wherefore she always kept a good Correspondency with all such as were Enemies of the House of Austria ; she assisted France against the Designs of the Spaniards , favoured the Protestant Princes in Germany , upheld the Dutch against the Spaniards , thereby the better to weaken so formidable a Neighbour , looking upon the Netherlands as the Out-work of her Kingdom . Besides this , she finding continual employment for her Subjects abroad , did not a little contribute towards the preserving the Health of the State ; for by this means a great deal of corrupt and inflamed Blood being taken away , The different Conduct of Queen Elizabeth and King James as to the State . it prevented intestine Diseases in the State . But King James took quite another course , and perceiving that the Vnited Provinces were grown strongh enough , not only to support themselves against Spain , but also to dispute the Dominion of the Narrow Seas with England , he left them to themselves , and concluding a Peace with Spain , establish'd a lasting Tranquility at home , for his Inclinations were more for Books than Arms. And because Subjects in general are apt to follow the Inclinations of their Sovereigns , the People laid aside all Warlike Exercises , and fell into such Weaknesses and Vices , as are commonly the product of Plenty and Peace : And the King hoped , when these Nations applyed themselves only to Trade and Commerce , they would be diverted from having any thoughts of opposing his Authority . He made it also his main endeavour to unite the Minds of the Scots and English , by Naturalizing the English in Scotland , and the Scots in England , and by joining the great Families by Marriages : But he was more especially carefull of establishing one Form of Religious Worship in both Kingdoms . The Occasions that were taken from Religion . For tho' there was no great difference in the Articles of Faith , yet the Ceremonies and Church Government were very different . For Queen Elizabeth , when she established the Protestant Religion retained many Ceremonies , which were anciently used in the Primitive Church , as also used by the Papists afterwards ; she maintained also the Authority of the Bishops , yet under the Royal Power ; supposing that this Constitution was most suitable to a Monarchy , considering that the Bishops had some dependence on the King , and had their Votes in Parliament . And it used to be the saying of King James , No Bishop , no King . But this Constitution did not agree with those of the Reform'd Religion in Holland , Switzerland and France , partly because these Nations were used to a Democratical Liberty , and therefore loved an Equality in the Church-Government as well as the State ; partly because they had suffered from some Kings and Bishops , and therefore both were equally hated by them . These would not allow of any Superiority among the Clergy , but constituted the outward Church-Government by Presbyteries , Classes and Synods ; neither would they admit any Ceremonies , believing , that the perfection of the Reformed Religion did consist in not having so much as anything , tho'never so indifferent , common with the Papists . And according to this Form the Church of Scotland being establish'd , the number of such as were of the same Opinion increased daily in England , who were commonly called Presbyterians or Puritans . And the Capriciousness of those who were of several Sentiments proved the more dangerous , because these Nations being of a melancholy temper used to adhere stedfastly to their Opinions , not to be removed from them . King James being besides a great Enemy of the Puritans , thought to have found out a way to suppress them in Scotland , by inserting it among the Royal Prerogatives , which was to be confirmed by the Parliament of Scotland , That he had the Supream Power both in Spiritual and Temporal Affairs in the same manner in Scotland as in England . By this means he hoped to model , without any great difficulty , the Church of Scotland according to that of England . And tho' this Proposition was opposed by a great many in the Parliament of Scotland , yet the King's party prevailed , and a new Form of Church-Government was established in Scotland . But the King had no sooner turned his back and was return'd into England , but the common people made an Insurrection against the Bishops in Scotland , who began to introduce there the Ceremonies of the Church of England .

§ . 25. The Conduct of Charles I. Tho' King Charles I. was of a more warlike temper than his Father , yet was he obliged , tho' against his Will , according to the Maxims of his Father , to preserve Peace abroad , to avoid the danger of being oblig'd to depend on the Capricious Humours of his Subjects . And because he , as well as his Father , had a great dislike of the Power of the common people , and of the Temper and Principles of the Puritans , all his Thoughts were bent to find out ways how to secure himself from the danger of both : And because the King could not impose any extraordinary Taxes without the consent of the Parliament , Charles chose rather to controul his own Inclinations , which were bent for War , than to fawn upon the Parliament ; in hopes that its Heats , which was for limiting the King's Power , would by degrees diminish , if it was not called together for a considerable time . It is supposed , that the Lord Treasurer Weston did confirm him in this Opinion , who did expect to be call'd to an account by the Parliament . The Parliament used anciently to provide a certain yearly Revenue for the King , towards maintaining his Court and Fleet , to secure the Commerce of the Kingdom , which Revenue was not hereditary to the next Successour . The first Parliament which was called by Charles I. had settled the Customs , as part of his Revenue , but when he afterwards , having dissolved the same against the Opinion of the Male Contents , his Revenues also began to be call'd in question , it being their Opinion , that nothing could so soon oblige the King to call a new Parliament , as if what was necessary for his and the Courts Subsistence , were withheld from him . But the King , however , did not only receive the same Customs as his Predecessours had done , but also augmented them with new Impositions to the yearly value of 800000 l. by which means the King , who was firm in his Opinion , was thought to have a Design to alter the ancient Constitution of the Government , and to maintain himself without a Parliament ; which however was look'd upon as an impossibility by the generality of them : For King James had left above 1200000 l. Debts , which were since increased by Charles 400000 l. more , which Money was expended in the Wars against France and Spain ; it was therefore not visible , how he could extricate himself out of these Debts without the assistance of a Parliament , since according to the fundamental Constitutions of the Realm he could not levy any Taxes upon the Subjects , and to force them to pay any , was beyond his Power , having no Forces on foot , but the Militia of the Kingdom . And it was impossible to bring in such a Foreign Force , as could be supposed to be able to make Head against the dissatisfy'd people . Notwithstanding all which the King pursued his Resolution , and having ask'd the Opinion of Men skill'd in the Law , who told him , That it was allowable , for the publick benefit , to levy Money by his own Authority ; he imposed several new Taxes , whereby he augmented his yearly Revenue from 500000 l. to 800000 l. Besides this , he laid a Tax for maintaining of a Fleet , which amounted to 200000 l. All which caused great dissatisfaction among the Subjects against the King : Besides , the King was thought by the Puritans , to deal hardly with them and too mildly with the Papists ( by the Counsel of Archbishop Laud , a Man of great Resolution , who at that time apprehended , that Faction very dangerous both to Church and State which was by the Puritans interpreted , as if the King was resolved , by suppressing of them , to introduce Popery ; to insinuate this into the Multitude , abundance of Libels and scurrilous Papers were scatter'd abroad against the King and the Bishops , and Commissioners being appointed to inquire into them , they were rather exasperated than appeas'd by its Severity .

§ . 26. Both Nations being therefore full of Discontents , Troubles in Scotland and England . the Flame first broke out in Scotland : For the King endeavouring to root out Puritanism there , to establish the Authority of the Bishops , and an Uniformity in Religion , he order'd a Church Liturgy to be composed , abrogating all Presbyteries , Classes and Provincial Synods , and enjoining every one under severe penalties , to conform to the same ; there was a general Insurrection raised by that party in Scotland . There was also another reason ; 1637. for , at the time of the first Reformation the Revenues of a great many Church Benefices were appropriated to the use of the Crown , but without any remarkable advantage ; for they were lett out , for the most part , to younger Brothers of Noble Families . These having found the benefit of them , had , by getting from time to time the Survivorship , continued the same in their Families , and kept them as their own Propriety . Nay , they did more than this , for during the Minority of King James VI. 1567. they had obtained the Titles of Lordships for some of the most considerable of these , or some lesser Benefices joined together . King James afterwards perceiving , 1617. that thereby they had bound him up from rewarding such with these Benefices as deserved well of him , would have recall'd the beforesaid Grants , but met with such opposition in the Nobility , that he desisted from it . 1633. But the King undertook the business effectually , employing the said Revenues towards the augmenting of the Salaries of the Clergy . These therefore who had been losers by this Revocation joined with such Ministers as were mortal Enemies of the Liturgy , did , with all their might , help to stirr up the Rebellion . Alexander Lesley , also , who had been a Commander in the German Wars , and having refused to serve under John Banniers there , was returned into his native Country , in hopes to make his advantage of these Troubles . He put himself at the Head of the Rebellious Party , and by persuading the Nobility , that the King intended to take away their ancient Privileges , stirr'd up a great many against the King . And to make a fair shew to the common people , they made use of the Religious Cloak of Conscience , The Scotch Covenant . ordering a Directory to be compos'd by the Ministers quite opposite to the former Liturgy . They thereupon enter'd into an Association ▪ confirm'd by solemn Oaths , That they would maintain the same against all , even the King himself : This Association was called the Covenant , which being subscrib'd by the greatest part of the Nobility and Clergy , a Council was constituted , unto whom was committed the supream direction of their Affairs . To suppress these Commotions , the King sent the Marquiss of Hamilton into Scotland , who dealing mildly with them , only encouraged the adverse party : For the King calling a Parliament in hopes to remedy these Disorders , the Covenant was by its Authority confirm'd , the Episcopal Authority quite abolish'd , and Puritanism establish'd in defiance of the Royal Authority . There being then no other way left to reduce the Rebellious Party to Obedience but force , and the King being in want both of Money and a sufficient number of faithfull Subjects , he was forc'd to make some use of the Papists to obtain both , wherefore he did not only raise an Army , wherein were some Papists , but also was assisted by them with some Summs of Money , all which , however , was in no ways sufficient to supply the want of the King ; and a Supply being demanded from the Subjects , very few , except the King's Servants and Officers were for contributing any thing . And it being divulged , that a great many thousand of Irish Papists and Germans were ready for the King's Service , to try , whether by this way the Subjects could be frightened out of some Money , it served only to exasperate the Minds of the people . Yet the King's Forces might in all probability have been successfull against the Scots , if they had fallen upon them immediately . But because they had leisure given them , they did not only settle a Correspondency with France and Holland , from whence they were supply'd with Money and Ammunition ; but also sent their Deputies into England , who so well knew there to represent the state of their Affairs , that the King being persuaded by the English , made a dishonourable Agreement with them : Which nevertheless did not last long , the Court being asham'd of the Agreement , and the Scots not trusting the King , A Letter intercepted , wherein the Scots desire Succour from France . the King had in the mean while intercepted a Letter , wherein the Scots had sollicited for some Officers and Money to be sent them from France ; this he hoped might prove an inducement to the English to oppose the Treachery of the Scots , and to furnish him with some Supplies , of which he stood in great need at that time . He calling therefore a Parliament , The Parliament is sactious , and favours the Scots . the Letter was read , but to no great purpose , the Members of the House of Commons being most of them Puritans , who were great friends of the Scots , so that the Parliament was a little while after dissolv'd by the King's Authority . The King had caused to be made Prisoner in London the Scotch Commissioner , who had subscribed the abovementioned Letter , whereupon the Scots took up Arms , and took the Castle of Edinburgh . The King having with great difficulty , for want of Money , got together an Army , went in person against the Scots , but as a party of his Army endeavouring to force their passage was beaten back with loss , which augmented the Discontents of his Subjects , the Souldiers for want of Pay , being to be maintained by those Counties where they were quartered . Besides this , ten thousand Men , which were raised by the Parliament in Ireland for the King's service , were forc'd to be disbanded for want to Pay . There was then no other remedy left but to make a Truce with the Scots , and to call a new Parliament in England , which began to sit in November in the Year 1640.

§ . 27. But in the Session of this Parliament , The Parliament of England directly oppose the King . the Ulcer which had been long gathering in the Minds of the people broke out : For the Parliament , in lieu of assisting the King against the Scots , enter'd into a Confederacy with them , promising a monthly Subsidy towards the maintaining of the Scottish Army , which was to be ready at the English Parliament's command . Then they began to reform the States , to clip the King's Authority , to punish his Ministers and Servants , and to take away the Bishops , Liturgy , and fall upon Papists . The better to obtain their aim , they forced the King to consent , that he would not dissolve the Parliament , till all such as were criminal were punished , and the State were entirely reformed : In a word , that they should have the liberty to sit as long as they pleased . Which in effect put an end to the Royal Authority . To try the King's Patience , and their own Strength , they brought , the Earl of Strafford , Lord Deputy of Ireland , to his Tryal , who , notwithstanding he made a good Defence , and the King did his utmost to preserve his beloved and faithfull Minister , yet the Rabble of London , then encouraged by the House of Commons , making an Insurrection , he received Sentence of Death in the House of Lords . And the King refusing to sign the Warrant for his Execution , was obliged thereunto , partly by the importunity of the Parliament , partly by the Insurrection of the Rabble of the City of London , and partly by a Letter from the Earl , desiring him to do it . Then the rest of the King's Ministers went to rack , some of them saving themselves by flight , some being imprisoned . The Bishops were excluded from the House of Lords . The Star-chamber , the Authority of the Privy Council , and the High Commission were suppressed : the Customs and power over the Fleet were taken away from the King . Some of these and some other things , which proved very prejudicial to him , the King was forced to grant them , in hopes thereby to heal the ulcerated Minds of the people . He went also in person into Scotland , where he granted them all what they could desire . About the same time a horrid Conspiracy broke out among the Irish Papists , who pretended to maintain the Popish Religion , and to redress some Grievances by force of Arms , which occasioned afterwards a most cruel slaughter . At last it came to an open Rebellion : 1642. For the Parliament not ceasing to encroach daily more and more upon the Royal Authority , The Rebellion begins . the King resolved to assert his Authority ; wherefore he summoned five Members of Parliament , whom he accused as Traitors , and authors of all the Differences : And the House of Commons taking their part , the King went into the House accompanied with some Officers , and spoke to them with a due resentment of their Behaviour , Their Behaviours which however they made but little account of , being not ignorant of his want of Power , of which he seem'd to betray himself , when he immediately afterwards condescended and came nearer their Expectations . The House of Commons thereupon stirr'd up the neighbouring Counties , and especially the London Apprentices , who made such an Insurrection , that the King , not thinking himself safe in London , retir'd into the Country . And the Parliament order'd all the Governours of the Sea-ports , not to obey the King's Commands . It was certainly a great errour in the King , that in such troublesome times , he had not taken care to secure to himself the Sea-ports , by which means he might have hoped for some assistance from abroad : For , when the King intended to possess himself of the Fort and Harbour of Hull , he was not admitted ; so that there was nothing left , but that the Parliament had not as yet taken from the King the disposal of Offices . But for the rest it was evident , that their Intention was , to abolish totally the Royal Power , and to introduce a Democracy . And after the King had once given his Assent to the exclusion of the Bishops from the House of Lords , where they had six and twenty votes , and the rest of the King's Friends had once absented themselves from both Houses , it was easie for the remainder quite to abolish the Authority of the House of Lords . Thus , after there had been long contests by Words and Writings betwixt both parties , the King now as well as the Parliament began to Arm themselves : And the King having at several times , at first , beat the Parliament Forces , the Parliament stirr'd up the Scots , entring with them into a Confederacy . Whereupon the Scots came with a considerable Force to the assistance of the Parliament , which turned the Scale , the King's Forces being routed near York , and he obliged , for want of Men and Money , to give himself up to the protection of the Scots , The King made a Prisoner . who nevertheless did surrender him to the English for the Summ of 400000 l. under condition that he should not be abused by them . The King was afterwards carried a Prisoner from place to place for a considerable time .

§ . 28. By these means the Puritans or Presbyterians , The Independents become Masters . had , under the pretext of Religion , overthrown the Royal Power : But that they could not long enjoy their usurped power , was occasioned by a certain Sect that called themselves Independent , because they would not depend on any certain from of Faith , or Spiritual , or Temporal Constitutions , nor acknowledge any of the same , whereby they opened a door for all sorts of Fanaticks , to come under their Protection . These , under pretence of a particular holy Zeal , had not only got a great sway in the Parliament , and had been against any peaceable accommodation , propos'd by others ; but also by their cunning insinuating way crept into the chief Civil and Military Employments : For in the place of the Earl of Essex , Thomas Fairfax was made General , and Oliver Cromwell Lieutenant General over the Army , the last of which was the Head of the Independents , a sly and cunning Fox . And out of this party all vacant places were supply'd in Parliament . The Presbyterians therefore perceiving that the Independents began to be very strong in the House , and that most Military Employments were in their Hands , proposed in the House , That one part of the Army should be sent into Ireland , that some Forces only should be kept in England , and the rest be disbanded . Cromwell made use of this to stirr up the Souldiers , telling them , that they were likely to be disbanded without pay , or else to be starv'd in Ireland . Thereupon the Souldiers enter'd into an Association among themselves , taking upon them not only the Military , but also all the Civil Power , they took the King from the Parliament into their own custody , pretending they would give him his liberty , but made themselves Masters of the City of London , and acted in every thing at discretion . For they quickly after broke off the Treaty with the King , and a great many of the Subjects , who were not able to bear their Tyranny , taking up Arms were dispers'd by Cromwell , who also beat the Scots that were come into England to the assistance of the King , making their General Hamilton a Prisoner . But during the absence of Cromwell , the Parliament had re-assumed the Treaty with the King , and the business was carried on so far , that there was no small hopes of an Accommodation , when the Souldiers , headed by Ireton , Son-in-law to Cromwell , broke off the Treaty , taking Prisoners such Members of the House as did oppose them : So that there were not above forty Members left in the Parliament , and those were either Officers , or at least , favourers of the Army . These decreed , That no Treaty should be set on foot for the future with the King ; That the Supream Power was to be lodged in the People , which was represented by the House of Commons ; But the Regal Power , and the Authority of the House of Lords should be quite abolished . Then they order'd a Court of 250 persons to be erected , The King is sentenced to death and executed . by whose Authority the King was to be summoned , sentenced and punished , notwithstanding that the generality of the people look'd upon this Court as an abominable thing , some Presbyterian Ministers cry'd out aloud against it in the Pulpits ; the Scots protested against it , and the Dutch Ambassadours , and other Princes did their utmost to oppose it . Before this Court , where sat among the rest , a great many of very mean Extraction , the King was accused of High Treason , Tyranny , and of all the Murthers and Robberies committed since the beginning of these Troubles . And the King , as in justice he ought to do , refusing to acknowledge its Authority , was sentenced to be beheaded , tho' there were but 67 of these pretended Judges present , the rest abominating the fact , had absented themselves , among whom was Fairfax . But the King , having been miserably abus'd by the Souldiers , was beheaded with an Ax upon a Scaffold erected for that purpose before Whitehall . 1648.

§ . 29. Ireland conq●er'd . After the death of the King the outward shew of the Supream Power was in the Parliament , but in effect it was lodged in the Generals of the Armies . Their first design was to banish the King's Son and the whole Royal Family , and to suppress all such as adhered to him . Cromwell was sent into Ireland , where the Royal Party was as yet pretty strong , which Island was reduced in the space of one year by Cromwell's good Fortune and Valour . In the mean while the Scots had proclaimed Charles II. tho' under very hard Conditions , their King , who also arriving there safely out of France , whither he was gone for Shelter , was crowned King of Scotland . The Parliament thereupon recall'd Cromwell out of Ireland , and having made him General ( for they had deposed Fairfax whom they mistrusted ) sent him into Scotland , where he beat the Scots several times , but especially gave them an entire defeat near Leith , taking , among other places , the Castle of Edinborough , which was hitherto esteemed impregnable . The King , in the mean while , having gathered a flying Army enter'd England , in hopes that a great many English would join with him : But he was deceiv'd in his hopes , very few coming to him , and Cromwell overtaking him with his Army near Worcester , Charles II. r●●ted . his Forces were routed and dispersed ; so that he was forc'd to change his Cloaths in his flight , and after a great many dangers was miraculously saved , and escaped , by the help of a Merchant-ship , into France . The King being thus driven out of the Island , the Scots were entirely subdu'd under the Conduct of General Monk , who was sent thither by Cromwell , who having imposed upon them very hard Conditions , The Scots c●nquered . according to their deserts , intirely subjected them to the English . This done , the Parliament began to take into consideration , how to disband part of the Army , and to quarter the rest in the several Counties . But Cromwell sent away that Parliament , which had been the cause of so much troubles , and constituted a new Parliament , consisting of 144 Members , most of them being Fanaticks and Enthusiasts ; among whom Cromwell had put a few cunning Fellows , who being entirely devoted to his Service , did make the rest dance after his pipe . These having first let these silly wretches go on in their own way , till by their phantastical Behaviour they had made themselves ridiculous and hated by every body , then offer'd the Supream Administration of Affairs to Cromwell ; Cromwell made Protectour . who having accepted of the same under the Title of a Protectour , selected a Privy Council , wherein were received the Heads of the several Sects . Thus they who had shown so much aversion to the Royal Power , and hatch'd out a Monarch of their own , who , without controul , ruled the three Kingdoms of England , Scotland and Ireland at pleasure . Cromwell , to have a fair pretence to keep on foot his Sea and Land Forces , which were the Foundation of his Power , 1652. began a War with the Dutch , who seem'd to despise this new Monarch : But Fortune was so favourable to Cromwell in this War , that he took above 1700 Merchant men from the Dutch , and beat them in five Sea Engagements , in the last of which the Dutch lost Martin Tromp , and twenty seven Men of War . The Hollanders then were oblig'd to beg for Peace , and to accept of such Conditions as were propos'd to them ; among which , one was , That the Province of Holland should exclude the Prince of Orange for ever , from succeeding in his Father's place . Another was , That they should not receive the banish'd King Charles II. into their Territories . Which some alledge as a reason , that he was always ready afterwards to revenge himself upon them , 1660. tho' at his return into the Kingdom , they endeavoured with aboundance of flattery to make amends for the former affront . It is very likely also , that the King was suspicious , that the Dutch had fomented the Differences betwixt his Father and the Parliament . Cromwell acquired so much Glory by this War , that most Princes sent their Ambassadours to him as if he had been a lawfull Sovereign , and desir'd his Friendship . He was no less fortunate in discovering several Plots which were made against him : For which purpose he entertained his Spies every where , even near the King's person ; having besides this , a cunning way to draw the people over to his party , and to suppress such as envy'd his Fortune He sent also a Fleet into the Mediterranea● , wherewith he curb'd the Pirates on the Coast of Barbary . Another was sent into the West Indies , where his Designs against St. Domingo and Hispaniola miscarried , but Jamaica he took from the Spaniards , notwithstanding that a great many of his Men were taken off by Sickness ; and he did considerable mischief to the Spaniards by ruining their Silver Fleet. He sent some Auxiliary Troops to the French in Flanders , who , in recompence , surrender'd to him Dunkirk . He died in the Year 1658 , having been as great and formidable as ever any King of England . He was a great Master in the Art of Dissimulation , knowing how to make his advantage of Religious Pretences ; wherefore he gave liberty of Conscience to all Sectaries , whereby he not only got their Favours , but also by dividing the people into several Opinions , he prevented their easily joining against him .

§ . 30. King Charles II's Restauration . After the death of Cromwell this unlawfull and violent form of Government could not be of a long continuance : For tho' his Son Richard succeeded him in the Protectorship ( this was the Title used by Cromwell , having refused the Name of King ) yet was he in no ways capable to bear such a weight . Wherefore he was soon deposed by the Parliament , which being divided within it self , Monk , who was then Governour of Scotland , took this opportunity , and marching with an Army out of Scotland into England , possess'd himself of the City of London , dissolv'd the Military Parliament , and recall'd King Charles II. into his Kingdom . 1660. This King did restore the ancient Form of Government in the Kingdom both in Spiritual and Temporal Matters , for his Subjects were ready to gratify him in most respects , as having been taught by Experience , That the Frogs who despised to have a Block for their King , got afterwards a Stork for their Master . This King , who judg'd , that the Greatness of England did chiefly depend on the Dominion of the Seas and Commerce , which was disputed by no body but the Dutch , did , in all probability , bend all his Thoughts that way , viz. How to make these proud Merchants more pliable , his hopes being grounded upon what he had seen Cromwell do against them . Wherefore he began a War with Holland , War with Holland , 1665. which was carried on at first with equal losses on both sides : But the English at last taking a Resolution to tire out the Dutch without coming to an Engagement , they ventur'd at a bold stroke , and to the great dishonour of the English , enter'd the River of Thames , firing some Ships at Chattam . This obliged the King to make a Peace with them by the Mediation of Swedeland , tho' the great success of the French Arms in Flanders may probably have contributed a great deal towards it . Yet it seems as if ever since he had kept up a Resolution of Revenging himself upon them , he being also again exasperated by the Rable in Holland , who affronted him afterwards . He therefore in the Year 1672 attack'd the Dutch at Sea , whilst the King of France made War against them by Land . But this War did not succeed according to his expectation ; for the Dutch did not only take from the English a great number of Merchant-ships , but also the English could not master the Dutch in any of these Sea fights , partly , because the French would not fall on in good earnest , partly , because the Dutch acted very circumspectly , not giving any opportunity to the English to make a Descent either on Holland or Zealand . It is possible that the King's Intentions may perhaps have been frustrated by some Intrigues at home . And because the English Nation began to grow very jealous of the great Successes of France , the King was obliged to make a separate Peace with Holland , 1674. and afterwards was receiv'd as a Mediatour betwixt the Parties then engag'd in War against one another .

§ . 31. Constitution of the English Nation . The English Nation is very populous and fruitfull : There are some who have reckoned , that in England are 9913 Parishes , in each Parish 80 Families , which make 778183 Families , and seven persons reckoned to each Family amounts to 6470800 Souls , among which number it may be suppos'd to be above a Million of Men capable of bearing of Arms. This Nation is also very fit to settle Colonies in Foreign Countries , because the English , as soon as they are in the least settled in a place , they quickly marry , and remain there for their life time . Whereas other Nations , if they go into far distant Countries , go only with an intent to get a little Money , which they afterwards love to spend in their Native Country . The English are also Courageous , Brave , not fearing Death . For in former times their Land forces were much superiour to the French , and ever since the times of Queen Elizabeth , when they first began to apply themselves in earnest to the Sea , they have not been inferiour in Skill and Courage to any Nation in the World , except that the Dutch may be compared with them in Sea Affairs . But this is to be observ'd of the English Valour , that they commonly are very Furious and Brave at the beginning , yet great Hardship , Famine , and other Inconveniencies they are not so well able to endure with Patience , as being us'd to live in great Ease and Plenty in their own Country . Wherefore Maurice Prince of Orange us'd to put the English , that were sent to his assistance , upon desperate Enterprizes , before ( as he us'd to say ) they had digested the English Beef . They are also very dexterous in Woollen and Silk Manufacturies , and are generally great Improvers of other Arts and Mysteries : Yet they are also somewhat Highminded , inclining themselves to Diversion , which is the reason that they do not so much Work as otherwise they might ; and yet they expect to be paid for their idle Hours as well as the rest , which is the reason why they sell their Wares at a higher rate than others , and that they envy such French Handycrafts-men , who live among them , and are seldom diverted from their daily Labour by any Pleasures . They being generally of a melancholy temper , makes them very Ingenious , and when they apply ▪ themselevs to any Science , they make great progress in the same , if they hit the right way . But by the same rule , because there happens often to be an ill mixture of this melancholy temper , abundance of Fanaticks and Enthusiasts are to be found among them , who having form'd to themselves Opinions out of ill-grounded Principles , adhere so stedfast to them , that they are not by any ways to be removed from them . Wherefore there is not any Nation under the Sun , where more different and more absurd Opinions are to be met withall in Religion than in England . The loose sort of people are addicted to Thieving and Robbing upon the High-way , wherefore the Hangmen are always busie in England . This Nation also loves to eat and drink extreamly well ; tho' there are some who will have it , that the English have got their way of drinking so plentifully from the Netherlanders in the Wars of the Low-Countries , and from thence have brought that ill Custom over into England , which before , they say , was not in use there . Their own Histories are sufficient evidences , that they have been always inclined to Rebellion and intestine Commotions . Wherefore their Kings can never be secure , except they keep a watchfull Eye over the restless Spirit of the People .

§ . 32. Constitution of the Scotch Nation . The Scots are reported to have a share of Pride and Envy in them . They are very apt to propose to themselves great Matters , and to delight in their own Inventions . They are good Land-Souldiers , and can endure more hardship than the English , neither are they so much addicted to their Belly , both which they have from the barrenness of their Native Country . They are very Revengefull , and intestine Broils among the Noble Families were formerly very common among them : For it was a custom , that each Family used to select one for the Head of the Family , unto whom they almost paid more respect than to the King himself , and if any one of the Family had received an Injury , he made complaint thereof to the Head of his Family : And if the Head of the same Family did resolve to revenge the Injury , the whole Family , under the Conduct of their Head , fell upon the Family of the Aggressour with Fire and Sword . Which abominable Custom King James VI. did endeavour to abolish . Besides this , they are easily stirr'd up to Rebellion , very obstinate in defending their Opinions to the utmost . Their fruitfulness in Children makes them seek other Countries , since their Country can scarce maintain them all at home . There is another reason also to be given for this , which is the right of the First-born , whereby the eldest Son is Heir of all the real Estate of his Father , the rest of the Brothers being obliged to be satisfy'd with their share in the Personal Estate . These then being obliged to advance themselves as well as they can , apply themselves either to the Wars or Study : Wherefore most Ministers in Scotland are said to be younger Brothers of good Families . But in England it is no shame for the younger Brothers of such Families to be Merchants . In former times , before Scotland and England were united under one King , the Scottish Souldiers were in great esteem , because the French made constantly use of them in their Wars , and at home they were always picquering with the English : But afterwards they grew careless of Warlike Exercises , and especially when Cromwell subdu'd them , their ancient Glory was quite obscur'd . The Scots are also often very Ingenious , and well vers'd in the Latin Tongue . And at that time , when all Liberal Sciences were suppress'd in Europe by a long Barbarism , the same were kept up in Scotland , which did furnish several other Nations with Learned Men , who instructed them in these Sciences . But as the Scots , which live in the low Countries , on the South-side , are well civiliz'd , so those who inhabit the Mountains , who are called Highlanders , as also the Inhabitants of the Orkney and Western Islands , are very raw and unciviliz'd .

§ . 33. Of the Irish . The Irish are commonly esteem'd to be a fool-hardy and ill sort of people ; very lazy , yet pretty hard in undergoing the Fatigues of War . They are very obstinate , and never to be bent from their Opinion . After Ireland was conquer'd by King Henry II. abundance of English settled themselves in that Kingdom , whose numbers increased from time to time to that degree , that scarce the fourth part of the Island remaine in the possession of the ancient Inhabitants . And because most of the Irish adhere to the Popish Religion , they did not only rebel under Queen Elizabeth , but also under the Reign of King Charles I. enter'd into a most horrid Conspiracy against the English living among them , of whom , 't is said , they murther'd 200000 within the space of six Months : But when the English had recollected themselves , they again kill'd about 100000 of them . Cromwell had once a mind to have rooted out the whole Nation , as being quite incorrigible and past hopes of any amendment . Wherefore he sent some thousands to the King of Spain , under condition , that none of them should return into the English Dominions . He used also to plague them every way , so that they are become a miserable Nation .

§ . 34. The Condition of Great Brittainy . Concerning those Countries which belong to the King of England , the Kingdom of England is a Rich and Fertile Country , abounding in every thing , either for the Necessity or Pleasures of Mankind , except Oyl and Wine , and such other Commodities as do not grow in the other parts of Europe , are of the growth of that Country . But else they have great numbers of very fine Horses , and good Cattle , especially the best Sheep of all Europe , which make the best part of the native Riches of England , bearing so good a sort of Wooll , that an incredible quantity of the best Cloath is made in England , and from thence every Year transported into Foreign Parts . These Sheep feed in great Flocks in the Country without as much as a Shepherd , there being no Wolves to be met withal in England ; the reason of which , as 't is reported , is , that King Edgar , about the Year 940 , did order a certain number of Wolves to be paid by the Prince of Wales to him as a yearly Tribute , by which means the Wolves were quite destroy'd in England : Tho' it is also very probable , that the great English Mastiffs have been very instrumental in this point , it being certain , that for Fierceness and Strength they surpass all the rest in the World . A great quantity also of Lead , but especially of the finest Tin is to be found in England , which surpasses in goodness all others in that kind . The Sea also is very profitable to the English , since it produces a great quantity of Fish , which are daily catch'd by the Inhabitants . Tho' by the Negligence and Laziness of the ancient English , who did not apply themselves industriously to Fishing , they have lost a great part of that advantage : But the Netherlanders , from ancient times , have made use of this advantage , and got vast Riches by the Fishery of Herrings and Cods , giving only a small Gratuity to the English , in case they have occasion to dry their Nets on their Shores ; tho' oftentimes the English , envying the Netherlanders , will force them to pay more than ordinary , which has several times served as a pretext for a War betwixt both Nations . Besides this , the Sea is extreamly advantageous to England , for thereby the English being separated from their Neighbouring Nations , cannot easily be attack'd ; whereas they may easily invade others : And because this Island is situated almost in the very middle of Europe , in a narrow Sea , where all Ships which either go East or Westward must pass by ; and having , besides this , a very deep Coast and commodious Harbour , it lies most convenient for Commerce and Trade , which the English carry on in most parts of the World , and the Dutch hitherto have been the only obstacle that they are not become Masters of the whole Trade of the World . For it proves very disadvantageous to the English , that they love to eat and drink well , and that in great quantity , and by reason of their love of Ease , they are ●ain to employ double the number of Seamen in their Ships , of what the Dutch do ; and besides this , they will not be contented with a small gain : Whereas the Dutch live very sparingly , do not refuse the Penny , and therefore are easier to be dealt withall than the English . They import a great deal of raw Silk into England , which being wrought in the Country , mightily encreases their Riches . In the same manner they do with their Woollen Manufactury now , whereas before the times of Henry VIII . they used to transport most of their Wooll into the Netherlands , where it was wrought , and turn'd to the great advantage of those Cities . But this King perceiving that his own Subjects might as well make the same benefit of it , he set up the Woollen Manufactury in his Kingdom , which increased prodigiously , afterwards , when at the time of the Troubles in the Netherlands , a great many of these Weavers did settle themselves in England . The Riches of England also are , as it seems , not a little increased , because it is not permitted there to any Body to carry any Gold or Silver of their own Coin out of the Land , except it be perhaps to the value of ten pound Sterling for a Traveller . But Scotland does not come near England , neither in Fertility nor Riches , having not any Commodities fit for Exportation , except Salt-fish , Salt , Lead and Coals . The Western and Orkney Islands also produce nothing but Fish . Ireland abounds in Cattel , and especially in Sheep , tho' the Irish Wooll is not so fine as the English , but for the rest it is a fertile and plentifull Country . In America belong to the English Crown , the Islands of Bermudos , Virginia and New England , and some of the Caribby Islands , whither the English have sent their Colonies , and have also begun to settle themselves on the Continent of Guiana . The Product of these Countries is chiefly Tobacco , Sugar , Ginger , Indigo and Cotton . They have also a Colony in the Island of Jamaica , from whence the English Buckaneers and Privateers do great mischief to the Spanish West Indies . For it is a custom with the English , That tho' they are at Peace with the Spaniards in Europe , they do them , nevertheless , all the Mischief they can in the West Indies . Tangier King Charles II. got as a Dowry with the Infanta of Portugal . Lastly , The English also are possess'd of some places in the Banda Islands , and thereabouts in the East Indies , which are of no small consequence to them .

§ . 35. The Form of the Government in England . The Constitution of the Government in England is chiefly remarkable for this , that the King cannot act at pleasure , but in some Matters is to take the Advice of the Parliament . By this Name is to be understood the Assembly of the Estates of England , which is divided into the Higher and the Lower House . In the first sit the Bishops and the Lords , in the latter the Deputies of the Cities , and of the 52 Counties or Shires , into which the whole Kingdom of England is divided . The first origin of the Parliament , as 't is related , was this , That the former Kings of England did grant great Privileges to the Lords , by whose assistance they had conquer'd the Country , and kept the common people in obedience . But these in conjunction with the Bishops growing too head-strong , proved very troublesome , especially to King John and Henry III. wherefore , to suppress their Insolence , Edward I. took part with the Commons . And whereas formerly , out of each County or Shire two Knights and two Citizens only were call'd , to represent their Grievances , which having been debated by the King and the House of Lords , they used to receive an answer and to be sent home again : This King Edward call'd together the Commons , and consulted with them concerning the publick Affairs ; tho' there are some who will have their origin to be much more ancient . This House , after it was once establish'd , did extreamly weaken the Authority of the Lords , and in process of time did not a little diminish the Regal Power ; for ever since that time the Rights of the People were maintained with a high hand , the House of Commons imagining , that the Sovereignty was lodg'd among them , and if the Kings refused to gratify them in their Requests , they used to grumble at their proceedings . And because the Power of the Parliament is not so much establish'd by any ancient Laws as Precedents and Customs , this is the reason why it is always very jealous of its Privileges , and always ready to make out of one single Precedent a right belonging to it ever after . This Parliament the King is obliged to call together as often as any extraordinary Taxes are to be levy'd ( for the Parliament did assign this King , at first , for his ordinary Revenue , 1200000 l. per annum , which has been considerably augmented since ) or any old Laws are to be abrogated , or new ones to be made , or any alteration to be made in Religion . For concerning these matters the King cannot decree any thing without consent of the Parliament . The Parliament also used to take into consideration the state of the Kingdom , and to present their Opinion to the King , yet is the same of no force till approved of by the King . It often also calls into question the Ministers of State , concerning the Administration of publick Affairs , and inflicts Punishment upon them , with the King's approbation . And it is a common rule in England , that whatever is committed against the Constitutions of the Realm , is done by the Ministers and Officers ; for the King , they say , does never amiss , but his ill Counsellours , which is not altogether contrary to Truth . But if the Parliament should pretend to transgress its bounds , the King has power to dissolve it ; yet ought the King also to be cautious in this , lest he should by an unseasonable Dissolution of the Parliament exasperate the People .

§ . 36. The Power and Strength of England . If we duely consider the Condition and Power of England , we shall find it to be a powerfull and considerable Kingdom , which is able to keep up the Balance betwixt the Christian Princes in Europe ; and which depending on its own Strength , is powerfull enough to defend it self . For , because it is surrounded every where by the Sea , none can make any attempt upon it , unless he be so powerfull at Sea , as to be able entirely to ruine the Naval Forces of England . And if it should happen , that the English Fleet were quite defeated , yet would it prove a very hard task , to transport thither such an Army , as could be suppos'd to be superiour to so powerfull a Force as the English Nation is able to raise at home . But England ought to take especial care , that it fall not into civil Dissentions , since it has often felt the effects of the same , and the Seeds of them are remaining yet in that Nation ; which chiefly arises from the difference in Religion , and the fierce Inclinations of this Nation , which makes it very fond of Alterations . Nevertheless a Wise and Courageous King may easily prevent this evil , if he does not act against the general Inclination of the People , maintains a good Correspondency with the Parliament ; and for the rest is very watchfull , and as soon as any Commotions happen , takes off immediately the Ringleaders . Lastly , With relation to other States . England and Scotland being comprehended in one Island , whose chiefest Strength lies in a good Fleet , it is evident , that this King need not make any great account of such States as either are remote from the Sea , or else are not very powerfull in Shipping . Wherefore , as the King of England takes no great notice of Germany ( except as far as it relates to France or Spain ) of Poland and other such like States ; so it is easie for him to curb the Pirates on the Barbary Coast : Which Nests of Pirates might have been easily destroyed long ago , if they had not been let alone on purpose to render the Trade in the Mediterranean difficult to the Hamburgers , and some others . England has nothing to fear from Portugal ; and this must rather hope for assistance from England and Holland against Spain . The Naval Strength of the Northern Crowns , To the Northern Crowns . England need not be jealous of , as long as the same is divided . Yet it cannot be for the Interest of England , if one of those Kings should become absolute Master of the East Sea , or that they should be fain to depend on the Discretion of the Dutch. To Spain . Since the Naval Strength of Spain is mightily decay'd England need not fear any thing from thence : Yet does it not seem to be the Interest of England to fall out with that Kingdom , considering what a vast Trade the English have into Spain ; for Spain does either consume the English Commodities at home , or else exchanges them for Silver , by sending of them into America . There are some who have computed , that in case of a War with Spain , the English would lose in effects above thirty Millions ; and besides this , their Trade into the Levant and other places , would be greatly endangered by the Privateers of Ostend , Biscay , Majorca and Minorca , who at the time of the Wars under Cromwell took 1500 Merchant-ships from the English . To France . Tho' the Land Forces of France are now-adays much superiour to the English , this Island both for its bigness and strength making up not above a third part of France ; yet the Naval Strength of France has hitherto not been able to come in competition with the English . It is the chiefest Interest of England , to keep up the Balance betwixt France and Spain , and to take a special care that the King of France do not become Master of all the Netherlands ; for it is visible , that thereby his Power at Sea would be encreas'd to that degree , that he might enter on a Design of being even with England , for what they have formerly done to France . Holland seems to be the only obstacle that the English cannot be sole Masters of the Sea and Trade , To Holland . tho' for the rest they have no reason to fear the Dutch by Land , but only at Sea , because the Dutch Land Forces are not so considerable , as to be able to undertake any thing of great moment . Nevertheless , how desirous soever the English are to be sole Masters at Sea , yet does it not seem to be the Interest of England , frequently to engage it self in Wars with Holland , it having been observ'd , that the Dutch , since the Wars with England are rather increased in Valour , Experience , and Power at Sea . And because other Nations are not likely to suffer that Holland should be swallow'd up by the English , or that one Nation should have the Monopoly of Europe ; it seems therefore the best method for the English , to let the Dutch trade as well as themselves , and to set some others upon their Backs , which may give them so much work as thereby to give a check to their growing Greatness , and in the mean while , take care to establish their own Power at Sea , and Commerce abroad ▪ But least of all it would be for the Interest of England , if Holland should be brought under the Yoak of the French King , who , without question , by the additional Sea Forces of Holland , and the advantage of the East India Trade , would be superiour in Power to any in Europe .

CHAP. V. Of FRANCE .

§ . 1. The most ancient Stare of France . AS far as we can search into the most ancient Histories , it is evident from th●nce , That Gaul , now call'd France , has been a very powerfull and populous Country . For the Gauls in ancient times had conquer'd a great part of Italy , where they settled themselves ; who also , when they had over-run Greece and some other neighbouring Countries , inhabited a part of the Lesser Asia , which was called from them Galatia or Gallo-gracia : Yet formerly this so powerfull Country did never either rightly understand or exert its own Strength against other Nations , because it was not then under the Government of one Prince , but divided into a great many p●●●y States , which were always at variance with one another . This much facilitated the Conquest of the Romans over them , who else stood not in fear of any Nation so much as the Gauls . Gaul subdued by the Romans . And tho' the incomparable Valour of Julius Caesar was chiefly instrumental in subduing this Nation , yet with t●n Legions he had work enough to effect it in ten Years time . But as soon as the Romans had brought this fair Country under their Subjection ▪ they employ'd all means to suppress the Martial Spirit of this Nation , in which they succeeded as well in this as in other Nations , it being their Custom to civilize and refine the Manners of these Nations , thereby to render them soft and e●●eminate . After France had been near 500 Years under the Dom●nion of the Romans , it fell , under the Reign of the Emperour Honorius , into the Hands of the Barbarous Nations . By the Barbarous Nations . For the Goths , after they had over-run Italy , settled themselves in Gallia Narbonensis , and the Burgundians , conquer'd a considerable part of the rest . But the Franks entring this Kingdom , settled and maintained themselves in it , giving it the Name of France , after their own Name . These Franks , were for certain , Germans , tho' some of our Modern French Writers pretend to demonstrate , That this Nation was a Colony of the ancient Gauls , who being overstock'd with People at home , passed over the Rhine , and having settled a Colony in Germany , after several hundred Years , return'd into their Native Country . That the Franks came out of Germany . But it is more probable , That the Franks are the same Nations which were formerly encompass'd by the Rivers of the Mayn , the Rhine , the We●er , and the Sea ; and which in Tacitus's time were call'd Salii , Bructeri , Trisii , Angrivani , Chamari , Sigambri and Chatti , and who having enter'd into a mutual Confederacy against the Romans , called themselves , in spite of their Power , Franks , or a free People , as not doubting but to be able to defend their Liberty against them . The origin of the French Language . And it is certain , that they did transplant the German Tongue into France , which was for a great while after in fashion among persons of the best Quality , till at last they used themselves , by degrees , to the Latin Tongue , formerly introduced by the Romans , which being corrupted by the German Tongue produced the modern French Language . It is also evident , that the Race of the ancient Gauls was not quite extinguish'd , but that both Nations were by degrees united in one , yet with this difference , that the Frankish Families made up the Body of the Nation .

§ . 2. But howsoever this be , Pharamond the first King . all Historians agree in this , That the Franks did choose for their King , about the Year 424 , Pharamond , who established among them wholsome Laws and Constitutions ; yet most are of Opinion that not this Pharamond , but his Son Clodion , Clodion . sirnamed Long-hair , invaded Gaul ; who , after he had been several times repulsed by Aetius the Roman General , at last took Artois , Cambray , Tournay , and some other places as far as the River Somme , making Amiens his place of Residence . He died in the Year 447 ; Merovaeus . but his Successour and Kinsman Merovaeus , in conjunction with the Roman General Aetius and Theodorick the King of the West Goths having beaten Attila , the King of the Hans out of France , extended his Dominions as far as Mentz on one side , and on the other side conquer'd Picardy , Normandy , and the greatest part of the Isle of France . The Romans themselves contributed to this loss , for that not only in the Battel fought against Attila , they had lost a great many of their best Forces , but Aetius also being fallen into disgrace with the Emperour Valentinian , was by him murthered ; which Aetius may be justly said to have been the last great Captain the Romans had ; there being after his death no body left who could resist Merovaeus . From this King sprang the first Race of the French Kings , which is called the Merovigian Family . He died in the Year 458. Childerick . His Son Childerick , for his Lasciviousness , was banish'd ; in whose stead one Aegidius of the ancient Race of the Gauls was set up for King . But Childerick , through the faithfulness of his Friend Guyeman , was after an Exile of eight Years , recall'd out of Thuringia , whither he fled , and restor'd to his Throne ; who drove back the Britains and Saxons , that made at that time great havock in France . He also conquer'd that part which is now call'd Lorrain , and took Beauvais , Paris , and some other places near the Rivers of the Oise and the Seyne . He died in the Year 481. Clouis I. His Son Clouis or Lewis , having kill'd Syagrius , the Son of Aegidius , establish'd the French Monarchy , and added great Territories to the Kingdom . This King fell in love with Clotildis , of the Royal Race of Burgundy , who promised to marry him ▪ if he would turn Christian . Which , however , he afterwards delayed to perform , till the Alemans , who would have got a footing in France , enter'd that Kingdom , whom he meeting with his Army near Zulick , a bloody Battel was fought , where , when he saw the French began to fall in disorder , he vow'd , That if he obtain'd the Victory , he would be baptiz'd ; which Vow , 496. after the Victory he perform'd , being baptiz'd at Reims by St. Reim , whose example the whole Nation of the French followed . This King also overturn'd the Kingdom of the Goths , which they had establish'd in Languedock ; uniting that Country with his Kingdom : He also conquer'd several petty Principalities , and a part of the Higher Germany . He died in the Year 511.

§ . 3. France is divided . After the death of Clouis , France received a signal blow , the Kingdom being divided among his four Sons ; who , tho' they annexed the Kingdom of Burgundy to it , yet this division weaken'd this Kingdom , and administred Fuel to the following intestine Dissentions . Nay , this impolitick dividing the Kingdom went further still ; for they subdivided the Kingdom again among their Sons , which occasioned most horrible civil Commotions in France , these Kings endeavouring , as it were , to out-do one another in Iniquity : And among the rest , the two Queens Brunechildis and Fredegundis are infamous for their monstrous Crimes . At last , after a great many intestine Divisions . Clotarius II , Clotarius II. re-uniting the divided Kingdom , did somewhat restore its ancient State . 614. He died in the Year 628. Dagobert . But his Son Dagobert fell into the same Madness ; for he not only gave part of the Kingdom to his Brother Albert , but also divided his own share among his two Sons ; neither did he do any thing for the Benefit of the Publick during his Reign . From this time the French Kings quite degenerated from their ancient Valour , giving themselves over to Laziness and Debauchery . Wherefore the Grand Mareschals of the Kingdom did by degrees assume the Power and Administratinon of Publick Affairs . Among these Pipin was famous , descended of a Noble Family in Austrasia , who had the Administration of Affairs during the space of twenty eight Years , under several Kings . Char●es Martell . 714. His Son Charles Martell succeeded his Father in his Power and Office , which he rather augmented , after he was grown famous by his Martial Exploits , having chas'd away the Saracens , who about that time , conquering Spain , fell also into France , of whom he kill'd a vast number . 732. This Man took upo● himself the Title of a Prince and Duke of France , so that nothing remain'd with the Kings but the bare Title and an empty Name , they being kept in the Country , and once a Year carried for a Show through the City , to expose them to the view of the People like strange Creatures . At last , Pipin the Younger , Son of this Charles Martell ( who died in the Year 741 ) having brought the great Men of the Kingdom over to his Party , depos'd King Childerick II. and having sent him into a Convent , Pipin proclaim'd King . got himself proclaim'd King of France . This was approv'd easily enough by Pope Zachary , because he being in fear of the growing Power of the Longobards in Italy , The Merovingian Family loses the Crown . did endeavour by all means to oblige the King of France to come to his Assistance . And thus the Merovignian Family loses the Crown of France . 751.

§ . 4. Pipin , Pipin's Expeditions . to convince the World that he was not unworthy of the Crown , or else to furnish the People with other Matters than to talk of the deposing of Childerick , undertook an Expedition against the Saxons , whom he vanquish'd in a great Battel . And he had likewise , under the Reign of the former Kings , undertaken several Expeditions into Germany with great Success , and subdu'd some of the Nations bordering upon the Rhine . Not long after an Opportunity presented it self to make himself famous in Italy , For Aistulphus , the King of the Lombards , had propos'd to himself the Conquest of all Italy ; after he had chas'd the Governours of the Grecian Emperours , which were then call'd Exarches , out of Ravenna , and all other places which were under their Jurisdiction , and was ready to march directly against Rome : The Pope Stephen III. being in great fear of this Enemy , and not knowing where to find Assistance , crav'd Aid of Pipin , He assists the Pope against the Lombards . whom he at last persuaded to take his part against Aistulphus . In this War Pipin recover'd from Aistulphus all what he had before taken from the Grecian Emperours in Italy , the Revenue of which , he , as 't is pretended , gave to the Roman See , reserving to himself , as it is very probable , the Sovereignty over these places . He gained , by this Action , the Reputation of being very Zealous ; and by bestowing these Revenues upon the Holy Chair , got a firm footing in Italy , and the advantage of swaying Matters there according to his Pleasure . He made also Tassilo , Duke of Ba●aria , his Vassal , and beat the Duke of Aquitain . This Pipin died in the Year 768 , leaving behind him two Sons , Charles and Carolomannus , who divided the Kingdom betwixt them . But Carolomannus dying quickly after , the whole Kingdom fell to Charles . Charles the Great . This Charles was justly sirnam'd the Great , he having carried the French Monarchy to the highest pitch of its Greatness , none of his Successours having been able to attain to the like , tho' some of 'em have aim'd at it . For having routed Desiderius , the last King of the Lombards , who endeavour'd to recover what was formerly taken from Aistulphus , he conquer'd the Kingdom , and brought it under his Subjection . 774. He also subdu'd Germany , having routed Tassilo , who had taken upon him the Title of King of Bavaria . He also waged War against the Saxons , for the space of 32 Years , whom he at last brought under his Obedience ▪ obliging them to embrace the Christian Faith . For which purpose he erected several Episcopal Sees and Monasteries , by the help of the Priests , to reform the ba●barous Manners of this Savage People . He also beat the Sclavonians , Danes and Huns , and took from the Saracens a part of Spain , as far as to the River Iberus ; tho' his Forces , in their return home , were overthrown near Ronceval , where was also slain the famous Rowland . This Charles was in the Year 800 , He is proclaimed Emperour of the Romans . at Christmas , being then at Rome , proclaim'd Emperour by the People , by the Instigation of the Pope , in St. Peter's Church . Tho' he gain'd nothing by this Title , except it was the Sovereignty or Protection of the Roman Church , and the Patrimony of St. Peter , if both did not belong to him before , for all the rest he enjoy'd before under other Titles . He died in the Year 814.

§ . 5. After the death of Charles the Great , the French Monarchy began to decline again , because his Son Lewis sirnamed the Pious , Lewis the Pious . was more fit to be a Priest , than a Souldier : And it is certain , that so vast a Kingdom , where the new Conquests were not yet well settled , did require a Prince of a Military Spirit . And notwithstanding he had the good Fortune to force some of the Rebellious Nations to return to their Duty , yet he committed , afterwards , two fatal Oversights , when in his life time he gave to his Sons the Titles of Kings , He divides his Kingdom . and divided the Kingdom betwixt them . The first of which proved pernicious to himself , the second to the Monarchy . For these impious and ungratefull Sons were not for staying for their Father's Death , His Sons Rebell . but Rebelling against him , and made him , after he was deserted by every body , their Prisoner . The Bishops , who were by him kept under strict Discipline , after they had condemn'd him , forc'd him to resign the Government . 833. But the great Men of the Kingdom quickly repenting , restor'd him to his Throne , and he also pardon'd his Sons . He died in the Year 840 , having before his Death made a new Division of the Kingdom betwixt his Sons ; the Effects of which appear'd soon after to the World , when Lotharius , the elder Brother , who also had the Title of Emperour , undertook to take from his Brothers their Portion ; against whom , the two other Brothers , Lewis and Charles entring into a Confederacy , forced him to divide the Monarchy with them , having first obtain'd a bloody Victory near Fountenay unfar Auxerre , in which Battel were slain above 100000 Men , and among them the Flower of the French Nation . Germany divided from France . In this Division Germany fell to Lewis's share , which ever since has continued separate from France , and has made a distinct Empire . But the younger Brother , Charles the Bald. Charles sirnamed the Bald , got for his Portion the greatest part of France , viz. all that part which lies betwixt the Western Ocean and the Meuse ; but the eldest Brother obtain'd Italy , Provence , and all those Counties which are situated betwixt the Meuse , Rhine , and the Some . Under the Reign of this Charles the Bald , The Normans make an Irruption into France , the Normans ( so they call'd the Danes and Norwegians ) fell , with a considerable Force , into France , making great Havock where-ever they came : And the Kingdom was weakned to that degree , by the last bloody Battel , and its being divided into so many Principalities ( for the Sons of Lotharius had also shared their Father's Provinces among themselves ) that it was not strong enough to chase out of its Dominions these Robbers , but was oblig'd , 912. under Charles sirnamed the Simple , to give into their possession the Province of Neustria , which they called after their Name , Normandy . The Sons of Lotharius dying without Issue , Charles the Bald and the Sons of Lewis shared their Part betwixt them , out of which Charles got Provence . At last Charles obtain'd the Title of Emperour , and died in the Year 877. His Son Lewis sirnamed Balbus , Ludovicus Balbus . succeeded him , who dying soon after , left the Kingdom to his two Sons , who were very young , Ludov. III. and Carolomannus . viz. to Lewis III. and Carolomannus ; from whom Lewis King of Germany took Lorrain . Lewis dying in the Year 882 , as did Carolomannus in the Year 884 , none was left but a Brother of theirs by the Father's side , viz. the Son of Lewis sirnamed Balbus , who being then a Child of five Years of Age , Charles the Simple . was afterwards called Charles the Simple . For at that time the Authority of the Kings of France was decay'd to that degree , that it was a common custom to give them Sirnames according to the several defects of Body or Mind , as were obvious in them . He was , during his Minority , committed to the Tuition of his Cousin Carolus Crassus , who also had the Title of Emperours , who not long after , because he was very infirm both in Body and Mind , was deposed , and died in the Year 888. The decay of the Royal Authority . The Royal Authority being thus decay'd , and nothing but Divisions found in the Kingdom , The Excessive Power of the Nobles . the great Men of the Kingdom mightily increased their own Power , so that , whereas they used formerly to be Governours of their Provinces under the King's Command , they now began to claim them as a Propriety belonging to themselves , independent of the King . It is related by some , That the Kings at that time had nothing left but Rheims and Laon which they could really call their own ; which Evil could not be totally suppress'd by the following Kings , till several hundred Years after . After the Death of Carolus Crassus , Eudo Count of Paris crown'd King of France , 923. Eudo Count of Paris got himself to be crowned King , and waged War with Charles the Simple , but died in the Year 898 : Rudolf of Burgundy crown'd King ▪ Yet Charles the Simple , quickly found another Rival for the Crown . For Rudolf King of Burgundy , got himself to be crowned King of France , making Charles the Simple his Prisoner , who died during his Imprisonment . 929. After the Death of Rudolf ( which happen'd in the Year 936 ) reign'd Lewis IV. Lewis Outremer . sirnam'd Outremer , because he had , during the Imprisonment of his Father , shelter'd himself in England . This King's Reign was full of intestine Commotions ; he died in the Year 954 , leaving for his Successour his Son Lotharius , Lotharius . who likewise reign'd in continual troubles till the Year 985 , Lewis the Fainthearted . leaving behind him his Son Lewis sirnamed the Faint-hearted , of whom the French Historians only say this , that he did nothing . He had for his Tutor and Administrator of the Kingdom , Hugh Capet Earl of Paris . 987. After this King's Death , his Uncle , viz. Lewis sirnamed Outremer's Son , laid claim to the Crown , but was disappointed in his Pretensions by the great Power of Hugh Capet . He afterwards endeavour'd to maintain his Right by force of Arms , but was made a Prisoner , and dying in Prison , put an end to the Carolinian Race , The Carolinian Family extinguish'd . or at least , to its Inheritance of the Crown of France , which had been in its possession for at least 236 Years . It is very remarkable , that this Family lost the Kingdom through the same Errour which the former lost it . For tho' this Family , by prodigious Conquests , had rais'd the Power of France , yet were the Conquests soon after , by the Divisions made of the Kingdom again dis-united , and even a considerable part quite separated from that Kingdom , and annexed to the German Empire ▪ Besides this , by the Negligence of these Kings , and the excessive Power of the great Men in the Kingdom , France was reduced to a very low Condition .

§ . 6. As Hugh Capet , Hugh Capet , the first of the present Race . the first Founder of the present Royal Family , obtain'd the Crown , not so much by right of Succession as by the assistance of the chief Men of the Kingdom , who excluded the right Heir ; so ( as it is very probable ) he was obliged to remit a great many of the ancient Royal Prerogatives , and to confirm to the great Men of the Kingdom the Power of governing their Provinces , with the Titles of Dukes and Earls , under condition that they should acknowledge themselves Vassals of the Kingdom , yet not be obliged to depend absolutely on the King's Commands ; so that France at that time was like a mishapen and weak Body . Hugh , in the mean time , re-united to the Crown ( which at that time had scarce any thing left which could be call'd her own ) the County of Paris , the Dutchy of France , wherein was comprehended all that lies betwixt the Rivers of Seine and the Loire , and the County of Orleans . Among the great Men of the Kingdom , the chief were the Dukes of Normandy ( on whom also depended Britainy ) of Burgundy , Aquitain and Gascoigne ; the Earls of Flanders , Champaign and Tolouse , the latter of which was also Duke of Languedock : But the Counties of Vienne , Provence , Savoy and Dauphine belong'd to the Kingdom of Arelat , which was a part of the German Empire . Yet these Kings had at last the good Fortune to see all these Demi-Sovereign Princes extinguish'd , and their Countries re-united to the Crown of France . Hugh died in the Year 996 , whose Son Robert , Robert . a good natur'd Prince , reign'd very peaceably , he having reduc'd the Dukedom of Burgundy , to which , he , after the Death of his Uncle , was the next Heir , under the entire Jurisdiction of the Crown . The Tyranny exercis'd by the Pope against this King ought to be mention'd here . For , the King having an Intention of marrying Bertha , of the House of Burgundy , which Match was esteemed very beneficial to his State , and the said Bertha standing with him in the fourth degree of Consanguinity ; besides that , he had been Godfather to a Child of hers in her former Husband's time : He desir'd and obtain'd the Consent of his Bishops , the said Marriage being otherwise against the Canon Law . The Pope excommunicates him and his Kingdom . But the Pope took hence an occasion to Excommunicate the King and the whole Kingdom , which proved so mischievous , that the King was deserted by all his Servants , except three or four , and no Body would touch the Victuals that came from his Table , which was therefore thrown to the Dogs . He died in the Year 1033. The Reign of his Son Henry was also not very famous , Henry I. except that he waged some inconsiderable Wars against his Vassals . He presented his Brother Robert with the Dukedom of Burgundy , from whence comes the Race of the Dukes of Burgundy descended from the Royal Blood . He died in the Year 1060. Philip I. His Son Philip did nothing memorable ; he was also for his Marriage excommunicated by the Pope , but at last obtained a Dispensation . Under the Reign of this King Philip , William Duke of Normandy conquer'd England , Will . Duke of Normandy conquers England . which prov'd to be the occasion of unspeakable Miseries to France ; for these two Kingdoms were ever after in continual Wars , till the English were driven out of France . About the same time the first Expedition was undertaken into the Holy Land , Expedition into the Holy Land . which Extravagancy continued for near 200 Years after . The Popes drew the most Benefit from these Expeditions , assuming to themselves , an Authority , not only to command , but also to protect all such as had listed themselves under the Cross . Under this pretext also frequent Indulgences were sent abroad into the World , and what was given towards the use of this War , was collected and distributed by their Legates . The King of France , and other Kings , receiv'd thereby this Benefit , That these Wars carried off a great many turbulent Spirits : And a great many of the Nobility used either to sell or else to mortgage their Estates ; and if any of them happened to die in the Expedition , leaving no Heirs behind them , their Estates fell to the King . By this means also , that prodigious number of People , wherewith France was overstock'd at that time , was much diminish'd , whereby the Kings got an Opportunity to deal more easily with the rest . Nevertheless , when afterwards the Kings , either by Instigation of the Popes , or out of their own Inclinations , undertook these Expeditions in their own Persons , they found the dismal effects of it . For , by so doing , the best of their Subjects were led to the Slaughter ; and yet it was impossible to maintain these Conquests as long as they were not Masters of Egypt : Whereas , if this Kingdom had been made the Seat of the intended Empire , and the Store-house of the War , a Kingdom might have been establish'd , which would have been able to support it self by its own Strength . This King died in the Year 1108. Lewis the Fat ▪ His Son Lewis sirnamed the Fat was always at variance with Henry I. King of England , and in continual Troubles with the petty Lords in France , who did considerable Mischiefs from their strong Castles ; yet he was too hard for them at last , Lewis VII . and died in the Year 1137. His Son Lewis VII . sirnamed the Younger , His unfortunate Expedition to the Holy Land . undertook , upon the Persuasion of St. Bernhard , an Expedition into the Holy Land , but this prov'd a fatal Expedition , for by the Defeat which he receiv'd at Pamphylia , and the Siege of Damascus , which he was forc'd to quit , and the Fatigues of so great a Journey , as well as the perfidiousness of some of the Commanders , after he had ruin'd a great Army , he returned with the miserable Remainders into France , without having done any thing answerable to such an Undertaking : But he committed the greatest Error , when he divorced himself from his Lady Eleonora , whether out of Jealousie or tenderness of Conscience is uncertain , she being his Cousin in the third or fourth degree . This Eleonora being also the only Heiress of Aquitain and Poictou , was immediately after married to Henry Duke of Normandy , afterwards King of England , the second of that Name , who , by this Match annexed these fair Countries to the Crown of England . In fine , having been kept in a continual alarm by his petty Vassals , but especially by Henry II. King of England . He died in the Year 1180.

§ . 7. His Son Philip II. sirnamed Augustus , Philip II. the Conquerour . or the Conquerour , was at first engaged in a War against Henry II. King of England , from whom he took several considerable places ; which , however he restored afterwards to his Son Richard , with whom he enter'd into a League to retake Jerusalem from the Saracens , pursuant to which , Another Expedition to the Holy Land . both the Kings went thither in Person with a considerable Force . But a Jealousie arising betwixt these two Kings , nothing was done worth mentioning ; for Richard accused Philip , that he had an ill design against him in Sicily , in their Voyage ; besides that , he had refused to consummate the before intended Match betwixt his Sister and Richard : Wherefore , as soon as Ptolemais had been taken by their joint Forces , Philip , under pretence of Sickness returned into France , leaving only with Richard , Hugh III. Duke of Burgundy , with some Troops ; who envying Richard , hinder'd the taking of the City of Jerusalem . After his return from that unfortunate Expedition to the Holy Land , he undertook a War against Richard , War betwixt France and England . which he also carried on against his Brother John , wherein Philip had much the better of the English , for he took from them Normandy , the Counties of Anjou , Maine , Touraine , Berry and Poictou . He was very instrumental in deposing the Earl of Tholouse , who , because he had taken into his Protection the Albigenses , was excommunicated by the Pope . Philip also obtained a great Victory near Bouvines , betwixt Lisle and Tournay , against the Emperour Otho IV. who being joined with the Earl of Flanders , attack'd him with an Army of 150000 Men , whilst the King of England was to fall into France on the side of Aquitain . This King was so successfull in his Wars against England , that his Son Lewis was very near obtaining the Crown of England . And tho' he was chased again out of England , yet did he , after his Father's Death , 1223. pursue his Victories against the English in France , taking from them , among others , the City of Rochelle . Lewis VIII . But this Lewis VIII . did not reign long , for he died in the Year 1226 , leaving for Successour his Son Lewis IX . Lewis IX . sirnamed the Holy , during whose Minority , his Mother Blanch of Castile had the Supream Administration of Affairs ; and tho' some of the Nobility raised great Troubles against her , she subdued them all by her singular Prudence . In the Year 1244 , the City of Jerusalem was ransack'd by some Persians , who called themselves Chorasmii , Lewis being about the same time dangerously ill , made a Vow , That if he recovered he would undertake an Expedition against those Infidels ; which he afterwards perform'd . A third Expedition to the Holy Land without Success . But before his departure he issued out his Proclamation throughout the Kingdom , intimating , that whoever had received any damage by his Souldiers , should have Restitution made him , which was performed accordingly . In this Expedition he took the strong City of Damiata ; but the overflowing of the River Nile , hindered him from taking Grand Cairo . After the River was returned to its usual Bounds , he vanquish'd the Enemy in two Battels ; but they having receiv'd new Reinforcements , cut off the Provisions from the French , who were also extreamly pester'd with the Scurvy . The King then resolv'd to retreat towards Damiata , but in his March thither they attack'd him , gave him a terrible overthrow , and took him Prisoner , yet released him again for a Ransom of 400000 Livres , he being obliged to restore also to them the City of Damiata . Thus he marched with the Remainders of his Army , which from 30000 Men was moulder'd away to 6000 , to Ptolemais , where , after he had given what Assistance he could to the Christians , 1254. he at last returned home . Under the Reign of this King , The first Pretensions of the French upon the Kingdom of Naples . France got first an Opportunity to intermeddle in the Affairs of Italy , from whence , yet this Kingdom never reapt any great Benefit . Manfred , natural Son of the Emperour Frederick II. having first kill'd King Conrad his Brother , made himself King of Naples and Sicily . But the Pope , on whom this Kingdom depended as a Fief , being dissatisfy'd with Manfred , offer'd the same to Charles Earl of Anjou , Brother of Lewis IV. King of France , which he having accepted of , was crowned at Rome , 1261. with Conditon , that he should pay to the Pope 8000 Ounces of Gold , make a yearly Present of a White Horse , as an acknowledgment ; and if he was chosen Emperour , that he should not unite that Kingdom with the Empire ; the Pope being unwilling to have any one more powerfull than himself in Italy . Charles thereupon vanquish'd Manfred , and having murthered him and his Children , took possession of the Kingdom . The young Conradin , Duke of Swabia , came with an Army to recover the Kingdom , which was his Inheritance , from his Grandfather , but having been overthrown in a Battel near the Lake of Celano , 1268. was made a Prisoner , and in the Year next following , had his Head cut off at Naples , upon the Instigation of the Pope , who being ask'd by Charles , What he had best to do with his Prisoner ? answer'd , Vita Conradini , mors Caroli ; Mors Conradini , vita Caroli ; i. e. The Life of Conradin is the Death of Charles ; The Death of Conradin the Life of Charles . And as by the Death of this young Prince was extinguish'd the Noble Race of the Dukes of Swabia , so this Charles laid the first Pretensions of France to the Kingdom of Naples . In the mean while , King Lewis being not satisfy'd with his former unfortunate Expedition against the Infidels , An unfortunate Expedition of S. Lewis . resolved to try again his Fortune against Tunis , either because he found , that this place lay very convenient for his Brother's Kingdom of Sicily , or because he hoped thereby to open a way for the Conquest of Egypt , without which , all the Expeditions into the Holy Land , were likely to prove ineffectual . But in this Siege he lost a great part of his Army by Sickness , and he died himself there in the Year 1270. From a younger Son of this Lewis IV. viz. from Robert Earl of Clairmont , sprang the Bourbon Family , which now sways the Scepter of France .

§ . 8. Philip the Hardy . His Son Philip sirnamed the Hardy succeeded him , under whose Reign that considerable Earldom of Tholouse was united to the Crown of France . Alfonsus Son of Lewis IX . who had married the only Heiress of this Country , happening to die without Issue , in an Expedition into Africa . Under the Reign also of this King fell out the so much celebrated Sicilian Vespers , The Sicilian Vespers . whereby all the French were at one blow extirpated out of Sicily . The Business was thus ; Some Frenchmen had ravish'd the Wife of John of Porchyta , born at Salerno , who , enflam'd with Revenge , did seek for Aid of Pieter King of Arragon , hoping , by his Assistance , to drive Charles out of Sicily ; the Sicilians also being very averse to the French , who had committed great Outrages in that Kingdom . Pope Nicholus V. lent a helping hand , who stood in fear of the Power of Charles ; as did also Michael Paleologus the Constantinopolitan Emperour , because Charles had made some Pretensions to that Empire . John therefore , disguis'd in a Monks Habit , travell'd about from place to place , till he had brought his Design to Perfection . It was next to a Miracle that the Design was not betray'd in three years time , it having been so long a forming in several places ▪ 1282. At last it was put in Execution , it being agreed upon , that in the second Holyday in Easter , at that very time when the Bells rung in to the Vespers , all the French throughout the whole Kingdom of Sicily should be massacred at once , which was done accordingly , within two Hours time with great Barbarity , no person having been spared in the Massacre . Which being done , Pieter King of Arragon possess'd himself of the Kingdom of Sicily . And , tho' the Pope order'd the Croisade to be preached up against Pieter , and declared Charles , the second Son of Philip King of Arragon , and this Philip marched with a great Army to put his Son into possession , yet it did prove labour in vain , and Philip died in the Year 1285. Philip the Handsom ▪ His Son and Successour Philip sirnamed the Handsom , upon some frivolous Pretences , 1292. began a War with the English , taking from of them the City of Bourdeaux , and the greatest part of Aquitain , which however they soon after recover'd by vertue of a Peace concluded betwixt them . Not long after he attack'd the Earl of Flanders , He has ill Success in Flanders . who , by the Instigation of the English had enter'd into a Consederacy with a great many neighbouring Lords against him , from whom he took most of his strong Holds . But the Flemings , being soon tired with the Insolencies committed by the French , cut in pieces the French Garrisons ; whereupon the King sent an Army under the Command of Robert Earl of Artois , to reduce them to Obedience ; 1302. but he was defeated near Courtray , there being 20000 French slain upon the Spot , which happened chiefly by a Misfortune , that the Cavalry was misled into a moorish Ground . It is related , that the Flemings got above 8000 gilt Spurs as a Booty from the French . 1304. And tho' afterwards there were 25000 killed of the Flemings , yet they quickly recollecting themselves , raised another Army of 60000 Men , and obliged the King , by a Peace made betwixt them , to restore them to their ancient State . This King Philip also , with consent of the Pope , suppress'd the rich Order of the Knights Templers , and died in the Year 1314. He suppress'd the Templers . Whom succeeded his three Sons , each in his turn , who all died without Issue , and without doing any thing of moment . Lewis X. The eldest , Lewis X. sirnamed Hutin , died in the Year 1316 ; whose Brother Philip sirnamed the Tall , Philip the Tall. had a Contest for the Crown with his deceased Brother's Daughter Joan , she being supported by her Mother's Brother , the Duke of Burgundy , but it was determined in favour of Philip by vertue of the Salick Law . Under this King the Jews were banish'd out of France , they having been accused of poisoning the Fountains . He died in the Year 1322. Him succeeded the third Brother Charles IV. Charles IV. sirnamed the Handsom , under whose Reign all the Italians and Lombards , who being Usurers , did exact upon the People , were banished the Kingdom . A War also was begun in Aquitain against the English , but these Differences were quickly composed by the Intercession of Queen Isabella , Sister of Charles . He died in the Year 1328.

§ . 9. After the Death of this King ; Philip of Valois . France was for a great many years together torn in pieces by very unfortunate and bloody Wars , which had almost prov'd fatal to this Kingdom : His Title conte●ted by Edward III. of England , and in what ground . For a Contest arose about the Succession , betwixt Philip of Valois , Philip the Handsom's Brother's Son , and Edward III. King of England , the above-mention'd Philip the Handsom's Daughter 's Son . The former pretended a right by vertue of the Salick Law , which excludes the Females from the Succession : But the latter , tho' he did not deny the Salick Law , yet did he alledge , That this Law did not barr from the Succession the Sons born of the King's Daughters . And it was certain , that he was nearer a kin to the deceased King than Philip , neither could any Precedent be brought where a Son of the King's Daughter had been excluded from the Succession to admit his Brother's Son : Yet the Estates of France declared for Philip , partly upon the persuasion of Robert Earl of Artois , partly because they were unwilling to depend on England . And tho' King Edward did dissemble at first , this Affront , and came in person to do homage to Philip for his Provinces which he was possess'd of in France ; yet not long after he began to show his Resentment , the French having obliged him at the time when he performed the Ceremony of Homage , to lay aside his Crown , Scepter and Spurs . Besides , the States of England did persuade him not so easily to let fall his Pretensions , and Robert Earl of Artois , being fallen out with Philip about some Pretensions concerning the County of Artois , did stir up King Edward to undertake a War against France . In the mean time while Philip had defeated the Flemings , who were risen in Rebellion against that Earl , to that degree , that of 16000 Men not one escaped the Sword . War with England . In the Year 1336 the English began to make War against France , which was carried on for some Years with equal Advantage on both sides , and was interrupted by several Truces ; till at last Edward landed with an Army in Normandy , and outbraving the French , approach'd to the very Gates of Paris . But Edward making soon after his Retreat through Picardy towards Flanders , was overtaken by Philip near Albeville , Battel near Crecy . where a bloody Battel was fought betwixt them . The French Forces being extreamly tir'd by a long March gave the English an easier Victory . Besides this , some Genoese Foot retreated immediately , their Bows having been render'd useless by the rainy Weather ; which the Duke d' Alenzon perceiving , and thinking it to have been done by Treachery , fell with a Body of Horse in among them , which caused the first Confusion . The English also made use of four or five pieces of great Cannon against the French , which being never seen before in France , caused a great terrour in the French Army . Several French Lords also being not well satisfy'd with the King , were glad to see him defeated . This Victory is the more remarkable , because ( according to the French Historians ) the English were not above 24000 strong , whereas the French were above 100000. Out of which number 30000 Foot Souldiers were slain , and 1200 Horsemen , among whom was the King of Bohemia . This King , tho' he was blind , yet charg'd the Enemy on Horseback betwixt two of his Friends , who had ty'd his Horse to theirs , and they were all three found dead together . The next day there was a great slaughter made among some French Troops , who not knowing what had pass'd the day before , were on their March to join the French Camp . After this Battel the English took Calais , The English take Cal●is . Philip having in vain attempted its relief with 15000 Men. This unfortunate King , 1347. however , received this one Comfort , That the Dukedom of Dauphine was annexed to the Crown of France by a Gift of Hubert the last Duke , Dauphine annexed to France . with Condition , that the eldest Son of the Kings of France should bear the Title of Dauphin . This Hubert having conceived a mortal hatred against the then Earl of Savoy had before put himself under the Protection of France ; but when afterwards by an unfortunate Accident he kill'd his only Son , he retir'd into a Monastery , giving to the King of France the Possession of his Country . 1349. This King Philip also bought Roussilion and Montpelier , and was the first who imposed that so much abominated Tax in France upon Salt , Philip introduced the Gabell . called the Gabell , whereby the Subjects are obliged to pay for the Sun and Sea Water at so dear a rate . Wherefore King Edward used to call him in jest , The Author of the Salick Law . He died in the Year 1356.

§ . 10. John . His Son and Successour John was more unfortunate in his Wars against the English than his Father . Vnfortunate in his Wars against the English . For the Truce being expir'd , the War began afresh , wherein Prince Edward made an Inrode with 12000 Men out of Aquitain , destroying all roundabout him ; King John intending to cut off his Retreat , overtook him with all his Forces near Maupertuis , two Leagues from Poictiers . Battel near Poictiers . The Prince offered the King Satisfaction for the Damage sustained , which he refusing to accept of , attack'd Prince Edward in his advantageous Post , he being surrounded with Hedges and Vineyards ; but the English , by the help of their Bows , soon broke through his Van-guard , and afterwards the whole Army , which consisted of 50000 Men , put them in Disorder , killing upon the Spot ( as it is related by the French Historians ) 6000 French , among whom were 1200 Gentlemen , the King and his youngest Son were both made Prisoners : The three eldest had the good Fortune to escape . 1356. During the Father's Imprisonment Charles the Dauphin took upon him the Administration of Affairs , but the People which had been sorely oppress'd hitherto , being unwilling to obey it , caused great Disorders in the Kingdom . The Peasants rise up against the Nobility , and the Citizens of Paris made heavy Complaints . The Souldiers for want of Pay lived at Discretion , and made a miserable havock in the Country ; Charles of Navarre added Fuel to the Fire , in hopes to make his own Advantage by these Troublesome times , and did not stick to make Pretensions to the Crown ; yet Matters were composed with him at last . And the Estates of France refusing to accept of such Conditions as were proposed by the English , the King of England enter'd France with a great Army , and over-run the greatest part of it , yet could not make himself Master of any fortify'd place . Then a Peace was concluded at Bretigny , a League from Chartres ; by vertue of which the French were to surrender to the English , besides what they were possess'd of before , Poictou , Xaintonge , Rochelle , Pais d'Aulnis , Angoumois , Perigord , Limosin , Quercy , Agenois , and Bigorre , with the Sovereignty over them ; besides this , Calais , and the Counties d'Oye , Guisnes and Ponthieu , and three Millions of Livers , as a Ransom for the King's person . This Peace was very hard for France , A dishonourable Peace to France . and continued not long . King John , forced by Necessity , was oblig'd to do another thing little becoming his Grandeur , for he sold his Daughter to Galeas Viscount of Milan , 1360. for 600000 Crowns , giving her in Marriage to the said Viscount . This King presented his youngest Son Philip sirnamed the Hardy , with the Dukedom of Burgundy , it being vacant by the Death of the last Duke . From this Philip descended the famous Dukes of Burgundy , whose Territories , at last , devolved to the House of Austria . This King died in England , whither he was gone to make satisfaction for his Son , who being a Hostage there had made his escape . Some say , that he went to see a Lady there , with whom he was much in love . 1364.

§ . 11. Charles the Wise , King John was succeeded by his Son Charles V. sirnamed the Wise , who prudently made amends for the Rashness of his Grandfather and Father , never engaging himself in Battels with the English , but by protracting the War and secret Intrigues , endeavoured to tire out their Courage . The disbanded Souldiers had mutineer'd , and were become so Insolent , that no body durst oppose them . These he sent into Spain , where Pieter sirnamed the Cruel and Henry I. fought for the Crown of Castile . These Forces had put the Pope in such a fear , that in their March he presented them with 200000 Livers and a good store of Indulgences , to divert them thereby form taking their way near Avignon . Prince Edward also engaged himself in this War , but got nothing by it but a sickly Body and great want of Money . Wherefore he pretend●ng to lay a Tax upon his Subjects in Guienne , to pay off his Souldiers , they complained thereof to the King of France ; who having well prepared himself , and being informed that the Prince languished under a mortal Disease , summon'd him to appear in Paris , pretending , that the Peace made at Bretigny was of no force , since the English had not performed the Conditions , and had since that time committed Hostilities , wherefore he insisted upon his former right of Sovereignty over Aquitain . And Prince Edward having sent him a disdainfull Answer , King Charles denounced War against the English , He declares War against the English . A great many Fast-days and Processions were kept by the King's Order in France ; and the Priests made it their business to represent the Justice of the King's Cause , and the Injustice of the English to the People . By this way he insinuated himself into the Favour of the French that lived under the English Jurisdiction , and persuaded his own Subjects to be more free in paying their Taxes . The Archbishop of Tholouse alone , did , by his cunning Persuasions , bring over to his Party above fifty Cities and strong Castles . The Constable Bertrand du Guesolin did also great mischief to the English with small Parties , and worsted them not only in several Rencounters , but also beat them out of Perigord and Limosin : But in Guienne , especially , the English Affairs were in a bad condition , after the Spanish Fleet , which was sent to the Assistance of the French by Henry King of Castile , had ruin'd the English near Rochelle . After which exploit Poictiers was taken from them , and Rochelle upon very advantageous Conditions , surrender'd it self to the King of France . And King Edward being detained by contrary Winds , not being able to bring over timely Relief , Xaintonge , Angoumois , and some other places , followed the Example of the former , The English , not long after , with an Army of 30000 Men , marched from Calais cross the Country as far as Guienne , ravaging and plundering by the way where-ever they came , yet would Charles never hazard a Battel with them , but contented himself to annoy them with Skirmishes , whereby he did them considerable Mischief . The Pope , in the mean while , labour'd hard to make Peace betwixt these two Crowns , but King Edward happening to die about that time , After the Death of Edward , Charles attacks the English with Advantag● . King Charles took hold of this Opportunity , and attacking the English with five several Armies at one time , took all from them but Calais , Bourdeaux and Bayonne in Guienne , and Cherbury in Normandy . The English , during the Minority of their King , being also pester'd with the Plague and the War with the Scots , were not in a Capacity to send sufficient Relief : Yet this King miscarried in his Enterprize against Britainy . In the Year 1379 , the Emperour Charles IV. came to visit him in Paris , where he constituted the Dauphin a perpetual Vicar of the Empire in Dauphine : And ever since , say the French , the German Emperours never did pretend to any thing in Dauphine , and in the Kingdom of A●elat . He died in the Year 1380.

§ . 12. Charles VI. Now we are come to that most unfortunate Reign of Charles VI. at the very beginning of which , one of the main occasions of Mischief to France was , That Joan Queen of Naples standing in fear of Charles de Duraz , did adopt Lewis Duke of Anjou , declaring him Heir of that Kingdom . The Duke willingly accepting of her Offer , raised , in her behalf , an Army of 30000 Horse , having employed thereunto the Treasure left by Charles V. which he had got clandestinely into his possession . With this Army be made himself Master of Provence , which then belong'd to Joan. And tho' in the mean time Charles de Duraz having kill'd Joan , had made himself Master of the Kingdom , the Duke of Anjou , nevertheless , pursued his intended Expedition ; but was , by continual Marches , and the Cunning of Charles , led about and tir'd to that degree , that he died in great Misery , very few of so great an Army having had the good fortune to return into France . 1384. The People also were generally much dissatisfy'd at the beginning , because those who had the Tuition of the King , to curry-favour with the People , had promised an abatement of the heavy Taxes . But the same being not long after again introduc'd , augmented and devoured by the Courtiers , great Troubles and Insurrections arose both in Paris and other places . In the mean while the Flemings had carried themselves insolently towards their Lord , who calling to his Assistance , the French , they killed 40000 Flemings , together with their General Arteville . The general Dissatisfaction of the People was much increased afterward , 1382. when a great Summ of Money was employed upon an Expedition against England , which proving fruitless , both the Money and Men were lost . The first rise of the French Pretensions upon Milan● Lewis Duke of Orleans , Brother of this King Charles , married Valentina the Daughter of John Ga●●acius Viscount of Milan , with this Condition , That he should receive immediately , as a Dowry , not only a great Treasure of Money and Jewels , but also the County of Ast ; and in case her Father should die without Issue , the whole Country should be devolved on Valentina and her Children . Which Contract has not only furnished France with a Pretension to Milan , but also has been the occasion of great Calamities . After this another Misfortune happened to France , for the King , whose Brains were mightily weakened by Debaucheries in his younger Years , 〈…〉 . as he was travelling in Britainy , fell upon a sudden Distraction , caused , partly by the great Heat , which was then in the Month of August ; partly , because , as 't is reported , a tall black Man appear'd to him , who , stopping his Horse by the Bridle , said , Stop King , whither will you go ? you are betray'd , Soon after a Page being faln asleep , let the point of his Lance drop upon the Headpiece of him who rid just before the King , which the King being extreamly surpriz'd at , interpreted it as directed against him . And tho' this Madness did cease afterwards , yet was his Understanding much impair'd , and the Fits would return by intervals . This unhappy Accident was the occasion of that fatal Contest concerning the Administration of the Kingdom ( which the King was incapable of ) betwixt Lewis Duke of Orleans , the King's Brother , and Philip Duke of Burgundy , his Uncle . The first claim'd it on the account of proximity of Blood , the latter on account of his Age and Experience . The latter was most approv'd of by the Estates , who declar'd him Regent ; yet the Duke of Orleans , by making new Intrigues , still endeavour'd to make himself the Head of the Kingdam , which caused pernicious Factions in the Court. And tho' the Duke of Burgundy died , 1404. his Son John pursuing his Father's Pretensions , the Hatred so increased betwixt both Parties , that notwithstanding the Reconciliation made betwixt them , The Duke of Orleans assassinated by the Duke of Eurgundy , 1407. the Duke of Burgundy caus'd the Duke of Orleans to be murther'd by some Ruffians , at Night , in the Streets of Paris . And tho' the Duke of Burgundy , after having made away his Rival , and forc'd a Pardon from the King , was now the only Man in the Court , yet were the Animosities betwixt the Duke of Burgundy , and the Sons of the murther'd Duke of Orleans , not extinguish'd thereby , which divided the whole Kingdom into two Factions , one siding with the Burgundian , the other with the Family of Orleans , and occasion'd barbarous Murthers , Devastations , and such other Calamities , which are the common products of Civil Commotions . At last the Burgundian Faction was brought very low by the King and his Party . The English take advantage of these Troubles . But the English having observ'd the intestine Divisions in France , landed in Normandy with a great Army , and took Harfleur : But being extreamly weaken'd both in the Siege and by Sickness , 1415. they resolv'd to retreat towards Calais . In the mean while the French had got together an Army which was four times stronger than the English , which met them near Agincourt , a Village in the County of St. Poll , where a Battel being fought betwixt them , Battel of Agincourt . 6000 French were kill'd upon the Spot , and a great number taken Prisoners , among whom were a great many persons of Quality . ( The English Historians make this Defeat much greater , it being rarely to be observ'd , that the Historians of two Nations , who are at Enmity , agree in their Relations . ) Yet the English being extreamly tir'd , could not pursue the Victory . In the mean time the Invasion made by a Foreign Enemy did in no ways diminish the intestine Divisions , but rather augmented them : For the Duke of Burgundy perceiving his Party in France to decline , began to favour the English , who , in the Year next following , landed again in Normandy , and had great Success . At last the Queen , who had hitherto had a share in the Government , added Fuel to the Fire : For the Constable d' Armagnac having now the sole Administration of Affairs , and being only balanc'd by the Authority of the Queen , took an opportunity , by the free Conversation of the Queen , to put such a Jealousie in the King's Head , that with the Consent of Charles the Dauphin she was banish'd the Court. Which so incensed the Queen , that she having conceiv'd an implacable Hatred against her Son , sided with the Duke of Burgundy , whose Party was thereby greatly strengthen'd . Thus commenced the intestine Wars , wherein both Parties were so exasperated against one another , that they had little regard to the great Success of the English , who , in the mean time conquer'd all Normandy and Roan it self . 1419. The Dauphin intending at one blow to root out the Evil of these intestine Commotions , cunningly invited the Duke of Burgundy to come to an Agreement with him , The Duke of Burgundy assassinated . when at their second meeting at Monterau , he caused him to be kill'd . But this stroke had a quite contrary effect : For the generality of the Nation abominated the fact , and the Queen took from hence an Opportunity totally to ruin her Son , and to exclude him from the Succession . Wherefore , entring into a League with the murther'd Duke's Son Philip , a Peace was concluded with Henry V. King of England , by vertue of which he was to marry Catharine , the Daughter of Charles VI. and during his Life to be Regent of France , and after his Death to be put into the full possession of the Crown of France ; That both the Crowns of France and England should be united , yet that each Kingdom should be ruled according to its own Laws . Besides this , a Sentence was pronounc'd against the Dauphin in Paris , That by reason of the Murther committed by him upon the Duke of Bargundy , he was declared incapable of the Crown , and that he for ever should be banish'd the Kingdom . He appeal'd from this Sentence to God and his Sword , and set his Court up at Poictiers , so that at that time there was in France two Governments and two Courts . But the Affairs of the Dauphin were in a very ill condition , very few of the Provinces siding with him ; those that did , were Anjou , Poictou , Tours , Auvergne , Berry and Languedock , but all of them mightily exhausted of Money . But it was happy for him , that the brave King Henry V. died in the very Flower of his Age and good Fortune , as likewise did , not long after , 1422. Charles VI. whose Life ( by the Infirmities of his Mind , being incapable of governing the Kingdom ) had greatly obstructed the Welfare of the Kingdom .

§ . 13. Charles VII . Charles VII . whom we hitherto have call'd the Dauphin , caused himself , immediately after his Father's Death , to be proclaim'd King , with the Assistance of the Bravest among the French , nevertheless his Affairs at the beginning were under very ill Circumstances : For the Duke of Bedford , who was constituted Regent in France , having caused young Henry VI. of England to be proclaimed King of France in Paris , Henry VI. of England proclaim'd King of France . in conjunction with the Dukes of Burgundy and Britainy , try'd all ways to expell him quite out of France . His Forces were several times miserably beaten by the English , the greatest part of the Cities abandon'd him , so that the English used to call him , in derision , the King of Bourges , because he used commonly to reside there . He was at last become so poor that he rarely could dine in Publick , and it was observ'd , that one time he had nothing for his Dinner but a piece of roasted Mutton and a couple of Fowls . Besides this , most of the great Men about him being dissatisfy'd with the ambitious Proceedings of the Constable Richmond , had left the Court , and were driving on their own Intrigues . Misunderstandings betwixt the English and the Duke of Burgundy the only Advantage Charles had left . The only Comfort left to Charles was , that there was a misunderstanding betwixt the English and the Duke of Burgundy ; else , if they had with their joint Forces vigorously attack'd Charles , he , in all probability could not have held out long against them . The occasion happen'd thus ; Jaqueline Countess of Hennegau , Holland , Zealand and Friesland , being divorced from her Husband , John Duke of Brabant , a Cousin of the Duke of Burgundy , was married again to the Duke of Gloucester , Brother of Henry V. The Duke of Burgundy taking his Cousin's part , it caused great Heart-burning betwixt him and the Duke of Gloucester . The Duke of Bedford endeavour'd to appease them , yet did the Duke of Burgundy from that time entertain a Grudge against the English ; which encreased afterwards , when the English refused to put the City of Orleans into the Hands of the Duke of Burgundy . This City being besieged by the English was reduc'd to the utmost Extremity ; the French , which attack'd a Convoy which was going to the English Camp , having been entirely beaten : Which Engagement is called la journée des Haranes , or , the Battel of the Herrings . Charles's Affairs were then become so desperate that he had resolv'd to retire into Dauphine , when upon a sudden an unlook'd for help was sent him : For a Country Maid born in Lorraine , The Maid of Orleans . whose Name was Joan , did pretend that she was sent from God to relieve Orleans , and to see the King crowned at Rheims . Both which she effected , striking thereby great terrour into the English ; whereas , on the other side , the French being greatly encouraged by this Success , saw their Affairs from henceforward mend every day . But this poor Wench following the Wars longer , as it seems , than she had in Commission , was taken Prisoner making a Sally out of Compeigne , and being deliver'd to the English , 1431. was with great dishonour burnt as a Witch at Roan . The English Power declines in France . The English , perceiving their Affairs not to go so forward as formerly , resolv'd to give them new Life and Vigour , by bringing over the young King Henry , and having him crowned in Paris : And to keep fair with the Duke of Burgundy they gave him the Counties of Brie and Champaigne ; yet all this proved insufficient . The War therefore having been thus carried on for several Years only with light Skirmishes , both Parties being tir'd out , a Treaty was at last propos'd by Mediation of the Pope at Arras ; but the English rigorously insisting upon their Pretensions , which were very hard , they were deserted by the Duke of Burgundy , who made a separate Peace with Charles upon very advantageous Conditions . There befell also the English another Misfortune by the Death of the Duke of Bedford , 1435. who hitherto had administred the Affairs in France with great Prudence . After this the Cities of France surrender'd themselves one after another to Charles ; among which was Paris , which submitted it self to its natural Lord. 1436. But because the English had made miserable havock throughout France , and the French Souldiers themselves being ill paid , had committed great Depredations , without any Order or Discipline , a great Famine ensu'd , and afterwards a great Plague . It is related that the Wolves did snatch the Children out of the Streets of the Suburbs of St. Anthony in Paris . The War having been thus protracted for a considerable time , a Truce was concluded for some Years . The King , to be rid of the Souldiers , sent them into Alsace , under pretence to disturb the Council at Basil . They killed at once 4000 Swiss , but having lost double the number soon after , returned home again . In the mean time the English were degenerated from their former Valour , their Forces were extreamly diminish'd in France , and the Souldiers for want of Pay had given themselves over to Plunder . They wanted good Officers , their Places were not well provided , and their Subjects weary of the Government . England , at home , was divided within it self , and the English weakened by two Overthrows , which they had received from the Scots . Charles therefore having met with this Opportunity , resolv'd to beat the English at once out of France . He took , for a Pretence of the War , that they had broken the Truce in Britainy and with the Scots ; and attacking them with great Vigour in several places at once , He drives the English out of France , 1449. he drove them , within the space of thirteen Months , out of Normandy . The next Year after he took from them Aquitain , Bayonne being the last which surrender'd it self ; 1451. so that the English had nothing left on the Continent of France but Calais and the County of Guines : Bourdeaux soon after revolted from the French , and sought for Aid of the English , but the brave Talbot having been kill'd in an Engagement , it was retaken and re-united to the French Crown , 1453. after it had been 300 Years in the possession of the English . Thus did this King re-unite the mangled Kingdom , having expell'd the English out of its Bowels . Nevertheless he did not entirely enjoy the Fruits of his good Fortune , living at variance with his Son , who for the space of thirteen Years came not to Court. And being at last persuaded , that a Design was formed against his Life , it so disturb'd him , 1461. that for fear of being poisoned , he starved himself .

§ . 14. Him succeeded his Son Lewis XI . a cunning , Lewis XI . resolute and malicious Prince , who laid the first Foundation of the absolute Power since exercised by the Kings of France , whereas formerly the Royal Power was kept under by the Authority of the great Men of the Kingdom . He reduces the excessive power of the Nobility . He began with reforming his Court and Ministers according to his Pleasure : Of which the great Men of the kingdom foreseeing the Consequence , they enter'd into a League , A League against him . which they called , La Ligue du bien public , the League for the publick good ; wherewith they pretended to defend the Publick against the King's arbitrary Proceedings . Among these were the Dukes of Burgundy and Britainy , who were willing to keep the King within bounds . In the Year 1465 , Charles , the young Duke of Burgundy , enter'd France with an Army , and fought a Battel with the King near Montlehery , wherein the Advantage was near equal ; but , because the King retreated a little backwards the Night following , the Duke of Burgundy pretended to have gained the Victory , which put him upon those Enterprizes which afterwards cost him his Life . The King's 〈◊〉 ●●thods . The King extricated himself with a great deal of Cunning out of this danger , for he released the Taxes , and with great Promises and fine Words appeased the People , all which , as soon as the danger was pass'd , he revok'd at pleasure . To dissolve the knot of this Faction , he made Divisions betwixt the most powerfull , the bravest he brought over to his side by giving them particular Advantages , the rest he ruined by his Policy , especially by bribing their Friends and Servants . And being in great want of Money , he borrow'd great Summs of his Servants , and such as refused to lend , were put out of their Employments : Which , The Original of selling the Offices of France . 't is said , gave the first occasion , that the Offices were afterwards sold in France . But the Duke of Burgundy persisted in his Opposition , who had in the Year 1468 hem'd him in at Peronne , which danger he however escaped . Duke of Burgundy slain . At last Lewis was rid of this his troublesome Enemy , who had laid so many Designs against him , 1477. he being kill'd by the Swiss near Nancy . Lewis taking advantage of the great Confusion , which was occasioned by the Death of the Duke in that Country , took possession of the Dukedom of Burgundy , under pretext that the same was an Appanage , and brought over to his side the Cities situated on the River Some , which had been under the Jurisdiction of Charles . It was generally believ'd , That Lewis , by way of Marriage , might easily have annexed the whole Inheritance of this Duke unto France , if he had not conceived such an implacable hatred against this House , that he was resolved to ruin it . Two Years before the Death of the Duke of Burgundy King Edward IV. landed with a great Army in France , whom Lewis with Presents and fair Promises persuaded to return home again . He united to the Crown Provence , Anjou and Muns , having obtained the same by the last Will and Testament of Charles d' Anjou , Count de Maine , who was the last Male Heir of the House of Anjou ; notwithstanding that Rene Duke of Lorraine , Son of Ygland d' Anjou pretended a Right to the same by his Mother's side . In his latter days he lived miserably , and grew ridiculous , being in continual fear of death . He died in the Year 1483.

§ . 15. Charles VIII . His Son Charles VIII . had at the beginning of his Reign his Hands full with the Duke of Britainy , and was marching with an Army to unite that Province by main force to the Crown . But understanding that Maximilian of Austria had concluded a Match betwixt Anna , the only Heiress of this Dukedom and himself , the French King did think it no ways adviseable to let such a delicious Morsel fall to the share of the House of Austria , but obliged the Bride , partly by force , partly by fair words , to renounce Maximilian , and to be married to himself , whereby this Country was united to France . And tho' Henry VII . Britainy united to France , King of England , did not look with a good Eye upon the growing Power of France , 1491. and therefore with a great Army besieged Boulogne , yet in consideration of a good Summ of Money he was prevailed upon to return home again ; especially , since Maximilian ( who had received a double affront from Charles , who had not only taken his Bride from him , but also had sent back his Daughter Margaret , which was promised to him in Marriage ) did not join his Forces with him according to Agreement . Maximilian took Arras and St. Omer , but being not able to go further he consented , that his Son Philip , Lord of the Netherlands , might make a Truce with Charles . On the other side , Charles gave to Ferdinand the Catholick , the Counties of Russilion and Cerdagne , some say , to engage him thereby not to oppose his intended Expedition against Naples . Others say , that Ferdinand corrupted Charles's Confessour , to persuade him , that he should restore that Country to its lawfull Sovereign . France being thus by the Union with Britainy become an entire Kingdom , it began to contrive how to obtain the Sovereignty over Italy . Charles had a Pretension , An Expedition to Naples , end the Pre●●●sions of it . because the Right and Title of the Family of Anjo and Naples was by the Death of the last Duke of Anjou and Earl of Provence devolv'd to Lewis XI . and consequently to himself . But this young King received the greatest Encouragement from Lewis sirnamed Morus , or the Black , Duke of Milan , who , having Tuition of his Nephew John Galeas , the true Heir of this Dukedom , but a weak Prince , had under that Pretence made himself Master of the same . This Duke fearing that he might be put out of possession by Ferdinand King of Naples , whose Son Alfonsus's Daughter Isabella was married to John Galeas , endeavour'd to give Ferdinand his Hands full of Work , that he might not be at leisure to think of him ; knowing also , that Ferdinand and his Son Alfonsus were much hated by their Subjects for their Tyranny and Impiety . An Expedition was therefore undertaken against Naples , 1494. which proved the occasion of continual Miseries to Italy for the space of forty Years ; for so long it was the Cock-pit for the French , Germans and Spaniards , and at last lost a great part of its ancient Liberty . Charles conquer'd Naples . It seem'd to be fatal to Italy , that the wise Italians either could or would not prevent this Expedition , which was design'd two Years before . Charles had at the beginning all the Success imaginable , for the Italian Troops were in a very ill condition , and there being no body who durst oppose him , Florence and the Pope sided with him , the latter declaring Charles King of Naples . King Alfonsus stirr'd up by his own Conscience , abdicated himself , transferring all his Right and Title upon his Son Ferdinand : But his Forces being soon beaten and dispers'd , Charles made his solemn Entry into Naples with loud Acclamations . 1495. Immediately the whole Kingdom submitted to him , except the Isle of Iseria , and the Cities of Brundisi and Gallipoli . The Conquest of so fair a Kingdom , and that within five Months time , struck a Terrour into the Turkish Emperour himself , being in fear at constantinople , and Greece being ready to rebell as soon as the French should land on that side . But the Face of Affairs was quickly changed ; for the French , by their ill behaviour quickly lost the Favour of the Neapolitans ; the King minded nothing but Gaming , and the rest following his Example , were careless in maintaining their Conquest . Besides this , it was look'd upon as a thing of such Consequence by the rest of the Princes of Europe , The League of Italy against the French . that the Emperour , the Pope , King Ferdinand of Arragon , Venice and Milan enter'd into a Confederacy , to drive the French out of Italy ; Charles therefore fearing lest his Retreat might be cut off , took his Way by Land into France , having left things but in an indifferent state of Defence in Naples . In his March he was met by the Confederate Army near the River of Taro , where a Battel was fought , in which , tho' there were more kill'd on the Confederate side than of the French , He los●th Naples . yet he marched forward with such Precipitation , as if he had lost the Battel . Charles was no sooner returned into France , but Ferdinand soon retook , without great trouble , the Kingdom of Naples , to the great Dishonour of the French , who were not able to maintain themselves there a whole Year , of whom very few return'd alive into France . Not long after Charles died without Issue . 1498.

§ . 16. Lewis XII . Him succeeded Lewis XII . formerly Duke of Orleans , who , not to lose Britainy , married Anna Widow of the late King . He made War soon after on Milan , pretending a Right to that Dukedom by his Grandmother's side , and having conquer'd the same within 21 days . 1499. Lewis the Black was forc'd to fly with his Children and all his Treasure into Germany . He conq●ers Milan . But the Inhabitants of Milan grew quickly weary of the French , their free Conversation with the Women being especially intolerable to them , and therefore recall'd their Duke , who having got together an Army of Swiss was joyfully receiv'd , and regain'd the whole Country , except the Castle of Milan and the City of Novara . But Lewis sending timely Relief , the Duke ' s Swiss Souldiers refused to fight against the French , so that the Duke endeavouring to save himself by flight in a common Souldiers Habit , was taken Prisoner , and kept ten Years in Prison at Loches , where he died . Thus the French got Milan and the City of Genoua again . After so great Success Lewis began to think of the Kingdom of Naples : To obtain which , he made a League with Ferdinand the Catholick , He conquers Naples . wherein it was agreed , that they should divide the Kingdom betwixt them , so that the French should have for their share Naples , Terre de Labour and Abruzze ; and the Spaniards , Poville and Calabria . Each of them got his share without any great trouble , Frederick King of Naples surrendring himself to King Lewis , 1501. who allowed him a yearly Pension of 30000 Crowns . But soon after new Differences arose betwixt these two haughty Nations , concerning the Limits ; for the French pretended that the Country of Capitanate ( which is very considerable for its Taxes paid for Sheep , which are there in great numbers ) did belong to Abruzze , whereas the Spaniards would have it belong to Poville ; and from Words they came to Blows . The French , at first , had somewhat the better ; but as soon as Gonsalvus de Cordoua , that cunning Spaniard had broke their first Fury , and Lewis did not send sufficient Relief , Loses it agai● . they were as shamefully beaten again out of the Kingdom , as they had been before . Lewis endeavoured to revenge himself upon the Spaniards in the Year next following , 1503. but tho' he attack'd them with four several Armies , yet could he not gain any thing upon them : Wherefore he made a Peace with Ferdinand , and enter'd into an Alliance with him against Philip Son-in-law to Ferdinand , who having , after the death of Isabella , taken from him the Kingdom of Castile , was upheld by his Father Maximilian , and back'd by Henry King of England , whose Son had married his Wife's Sister . In the Year 1507 , the City of Genoua rebell'd against Lewis , but was soon reduced to her former Obedience . Then the War began afresh in Italy , The Venetian War . with the Venetians , who being too much addicted to self-interest , had drawn upon themselves the hatred of all their Neighbours , having encroached upon every one of them ; and Lewis especially attributed to them his loss of the Kingdom of Naples . To humble this proud State a League was concluded at Cambray , Lewis joins in the League against th●● . betwixt the Emperour , the Pope , the Kings of France and Spain . 1508. Lewis , by entring into a Confederacy with his mortal Enemies , had more regard to his Passion than his Interest , it being certain that he might upon all occasions have trusted to the Friendship of the Venetians . But now he was the first that fell upon them , 1509. and defeated them in a great Battel near Giera d' Addua , which caused such a Terror among them , that they left all what they had on the Continent , within twenty days , and if Lewis had pursued his Victory whilst they were under this first Consternation , he might doubtless have put a period to their Greatness . But in the mean time that he marched back towards Milan , not making the best of his Victory , they got leisure to recover themselves ; especially since the Emperour Maximilian was not in earnest against them , and Pope Julius II. was reconciled to them . A League against Lewis . Nay , in the Year 1510 , the Pope , Ferdinand , Henry VIII . and the Swiss Cantons , denounced War against Lewis . For the Pope could not look with a good Eye upon the growing Power of France in Italy , Ferdinand feared lest Lewis might attack Naples , and Henry being come lately to the Crown , was for making himself famous by so great an Undertaking ; the Swiss were set against France , because Lewis had not paid them their old Arrears , and had refused to encrease their Pension , not because their Demands were extravagant , but because he would not be out-brav'd by them . In this War the French General Gasto de Foix behaved himself very gallantly ; for he relieved Bononia , beat the Venetian Army , killed 8000 of them in Brescia , and obtained a glorious Victory against the Confederate Army near Ravenna ; 1512. in which Battel , nevertheless , this brave General , being too hot in pursuing the Enemy , was slain . With his death the French Affairs began to decline , and they were again forced to leave Italy . Maximilian , Son of Lewis the Black was restored to his Dutchy of Milan by the help of the Swiss : The Genoucse revolted , and made sanus Fregosus their Duke . Ferdinand the Catholick took from King John the Kingdom of Navarre , which the French in vain endeavoured to regain from the Spaniards . But Lewis being extreamly desirous to regain Milan enter'd into a League with Venice , He conquers Milan agai●n . and retook most places of that Dukedom and the City of Genoua . He besieg'd Duke Maximilian in the Castle of Novara , but the Swiss coming to the Assistance of the Duke , attack'd the French with incredible Fury in their Camp , and drove them quite out of the whole Dukedom , which was twice taken in one Month. He is attack'd by several Princes at once . Then Lewis was at one time attack'd by the Emperour , England , and the Swiss ; and if the English and the Swiss had join'd , France would have run a great Risque : But King Henry , in lieu of entring into the Heart of France , lost his Time at the Siege of Terou●ne , where he defeated the French , that were come to its Relief , near Guinegast ; this Battel was call'd La journée des esperons , or The Battel of the Spurs , because the French made better use of their Spurs than their Swords ; and after he had taken Tournay , he return'd into England . The Swiss , who kept the Duke of Tremoville besieg'd , were bought off with 600000 Crowns , which were promised to them by the Duke without the King's Order , as likewise , that he should renounce the Council of Pisa and his Pretensions to the Dukedom of Milan . Which shamefull Agreement the King refus'd to ratify ; and if the Swiss had not been more fond of the Ransom offer'd for the Hostages than their Blood , they had pay'd with their Lives for it . In the Year next following Lewis made a Peace with the King of England , who gave him his Sister Mary in Marriage ; which young Lady , 't is thought , did hasten the Death of the old King , which ensu'd in the beginning of the Year 1515. This King was so well belov'd by his People , that he was generally call'd , Le Pere du Peuple , or The Father of the People .

§ . 17. His Nephew Francis I. succeeded him , Francis 1. who having made a League with England , the Archduke Charles and Venice , enter'd upon a sudden into Italy , and took Genoua and some other Places without great Opposition ; but being encamp'd near Marignano , within a League of Milan , the Swiss unexpectedly fell upon him , where a bloody Fight ensu'd . The Swiss were at last repuls'd , and found that they cou'd be beaten , having lost above 10000 ; but the French also left 4000 of their best Men upon the Spot . After this Maximilian surrender'd himself and the whole Country to the King , on the Condition of an annual Pension of 30000 Ducats to be paid him . Soon after the King agreed with the Swiss , whom in Consideration of a good Summ , he brought again into an Alliance with France . He made also an Agreement with Pope Leo X. by vertue of which the King was to have the Right of naming Bishops and Abbots , but the Pope to keep certain Benefits out of the chiefest Church Benefices . In the Year 1518 , he redeem'd Tournay form the English for a good Summ of Money . He aspires to the Empire . In the Year next following , after the Death of the Emperor Maximilian , Francis employ'd all his Engines to be exalted to the Imperial Dignity ; but the German Princes fearing lest the French should endeavour to humble them , and for some other Considerations , preferr'd before him Charles V. This proved the Occasision of great Jealousies betwixt these two Princes ; for Francis being very sensible what great Advantages he had gained by the Imperial Dignity , put himself into a good posture , to prevent his becoming Master of him and all the rest of the Princes in Europe . This Jealousie broke at last out into an open War , In a few Days he takes and loses the Kingdom of Navarre . Francis endeavouring to re-take Navarre from the Spaniards , as thinking to have met with a fair Opportunity , whilst the Divisions in Spain were on Foot . The French conquer'd that Kingdom in a few days time , but being not carefull enough to preserve it , as easily lost it again . Soon after the War was kindled in the Netherlands , 1521. occasion'd by Robert Van de Marck , Lord of Sedan , whom Francis took into his Protection . This Robert was so puft up with the French Protection , that he writ a Letter of Defiance to the Emperour , and fell into the Country of Luxemburgh . But Charles quickly chastis'd this petty Enemy ; and being persuaded that Francis had encourag'd him thereunto , he took from him St. Amand and Tournay , The Business nevertheless might have been compos'd at the beginning , if the French had not insisted upon keeping Fonterabia , which in the mean time had been surpris'd by them . A War 〈◊〉 in Italy . But the hardest task was in Italy , both the Emperour and Pope being willing to drive Francis out of Milan , and to restore Francis Sforza . They effected both with good Success , for the French Army was not timely supply'd with Money , and being , besides this , beaten near Bicoque , the French were again driven out of Milan and Genoua . The French driven out of Milan , 1521. And on the other side they also lost Fonterabia . But what happen'd very ill to Francis , was , That the Constable Charles of Bourbon went over to the Emperour ; The Duke of Bourbon revolts to the Emperour . the Reason of which was , That he had been for a while mightily kept under by the Queen Mother , the Chancellour Duprat , and Admiral Bonnivet . The first had commenc'd a Suit at Law against him about the Dukedom of Bourbon , which he despair'd to be able to maintain against so strong a Party , as believing that the King was underhand concern'd in the Matter . 'T is said , that the first Cause of this Difference was , because the Duke of Bourbon had refus'd to marry her . The Duke of Bourbon therefore had agreed with the Emperor and the King of England , That they should divide the Kingdom of France betwixt them ; the Kingdom of Arelat and the Emperour's Sister having been promis'd to the Duke of Bourbon . But the Design being discover'd the Duke of Bourbon was forc'd to fly into Italy . 1524. Notwithstanding the English had made an Inrode into Picardy , Francis sent again an Army into the Milaneze , under the Command of the Admiral Bonnivet , which was beaten back with considerable loss by the Duke of Bourbon . This Bonnivet persuaded the King to go in Person into Italy , with this prospect , that if Things succeeded well , he should have the Glory of having been the Adviser , but if they succeeded ill , the Misfortune would be cover'd by the King's Person . Francis therefore went with a good Resolution into Italy , because he saw the Duke of Bourbon , who in the mean time having enter'd Provence , had besieged Marseilles , did retreat before him , and having laid Siege to Pavia , he for two Months together harrass'd his Army in that Siege . In the mean while the Imperialists drew their Forces together , and march'd against him ( who was encamp'd in the Parks ) with an Intention either to sight him , Franc's desired at the Battel of Pavia , and taken Prisoner , or to relieve Pavia . Francis engaged with them in a Battel , but was defeated and taken Prisoner . And thus the French were again driven out of Italy . Francis was carry'd into Spain , and kept very hardly , 1525. so that he fell sick for Grief ; which hastened his Liberty , it being fear'd that he might die through Vexation . Besides that , England and the Italian Princes enter'd into a Confederacy to hinder the growing Power of Charles . The Conditions upon which he obtain'd his Liberty we have touch'd upon in another place ; but besides this , Francis gave his Parole of Honour , if the said Conditions were not fulfill'd , That he would return a Prisoner . He is set at Liberty on hard Conditions , which he did not perform . But the wiser Sort did sufficiently foresee , that Francis would not perform the Agreement , wherefore Gattinata the Chancellour refused to sign the Treaty , alledging , That Charles could get nothing else by this Treaty but the implacable Hatred of the French , and to be ridicul'd by every Body ; that he had been bubbl'd and disappointed in his covetous Designs . And Francis having obtain'd his Liberty after thirteen Months Imprisonment , pretended , That what had been done was done in Prison , and contrary to his Coronation Oath which he had taken at Rheims ; That the Kingdom was not in his disposal , he having only the use of the same for Life . The same was alledged by the Estates , and especially , by the Burgundians , who would in no ways consent to be separated from the Crown of France . If Charles was so much for having Burgundy , he ought to have taken care to have been put into possession of the same , before he set Francis at liberty . As soon as Francis had got his Liberty , he made it his first Business to renew the League with England and the Italian States . He with the King of England declare War against the Emperour . And the new Treaty having proved fruitless which was set on foot with the Emperour , both Kings denounced War against him . Charles afterwards accusing Francis of not having kept his Parole , the latter gave the first the Lye , sending him also a Challenge , which Matters were look'd upon by the World as very unbecomming the Grandeur of such Princes . He sends an 〈◊〉 my into Italy . Francis sent , after this , an Army into Italy under the Command of Odet de Foix Lautree , which having made considerable progresses in the Milaneze , enter'd the Kingdom of Naples , and having taken a great many places there , laid Siege before the Capital City it self . But the French Affairs receiv'd the first Shock there , when Andrew Doria , the Admiral , leaving the French side , went over to the Emperour , he being dissatisfy'd that the King had refus'd to conferr upon him the Government of his Native City Genoua , and to restore to the Genouese , Savona . This Doria is deservedly praised , for that , when he might have been Lord of his Native Country , he chose rather to procure its Liberty , which it enjoys to this Day . But Doria leaving the French side , was the occasion that the City of Naples could not be cut off of their Communication by Sea . And the Plague began to reign in the Army during this long Siege , which devoured the greatest part of it , and the General himself . The Remnants of the Army were miserably treated , the Officers being made Prisoners , and the common Souldiers disarmed ; the French were also oblig'd to quit Milan and Genoua . At last , the Emperour having obtained his Aim , and Francis being very desirous to see his Children at Liberty again , Peace made at Cambray . a Peace was concluded betwixt them at Cambray , by vertue of which , 1529. Francis pay'd two Millions of Ducats as a Ransom for his Sons , and renounced the Sovereignty over Flanders , Artois , Milan and Naples . And this was all the Benefit which this King and his Predecessours had reapt from the Italian Wars . 1535. Nevertheless , some Years after , The War breaks out afresh . the War began afresh , at which time Francis found a new way to make himself Master of the Milaneze , by first securing to himself the Dukedom of Savoy . Wherefore he made Pretensions upon Charles Duke of Savoy concerning the Inheritance of his Mother , descended out of the House of Savoy , and for some other Reasons he fell upon him , and took most of his strong Holds . In the mean time died Francis Sforza Duke of Milan , wherefore the Emperour was resolv'd to annex this Country to his House , but Francis could by no means digest the loss of it . Charles therefore entered Provence in person with an Army of 40000 Foot and 16000 Horse , ransack'd Aix and besieged Marseilles , which however he could not take , his Army being in a Month's time greatly diminish'd by Sickness . An Army of 30000 Men also enter'd Picardy from the Netherlands , which took Guise , but was beaten from before Peronne ; yet afterwards took St. Pol and Monstrevil . Francis summoned the Emperour before him as his Vassal concerning Flanders and Artois , alledging , that the Sovereignty of these Provinces was inseparable from the Crown , and made an Alliance with the Turks . The first seemed to be very ridiculous to most People , the last very unbecoming a Christian Prince . The French however reply , That this Alliance was eagerly sought for by the Emperour himself . At last , by the Mediation of the Pope , The Truce prolong'd for nine Years . the Truce which was the Year before made at Nissa in Provence was prolong'd for nine Years , and these two great Rivals gave afterwards one another a Visit at Aigues Mortes . And when in the Year next following the City of Ghent rebell'd , Charles had such a Confidence in Francis , that he took his Journey through France , tho' Charles in the mean while had cunningly given Francis some Hopes of the Recovery of Milan ; which however afterwards he would not acknowledge , because upon the Persuasions of the Constable Montmorency , the King had not taken from him any Security under his Hand during his stay in Paris ; which some alledge to be one reason why Montmorency afterwards fell into Disgrace . But the Truce was broke again , Francis breaks the Truce , under pretence , That the Governour of Milan had caused to be kill'd Caesar Fregosus and Anthony Rinco the Ambassadours of Francis , 1542. as they were going along the River Po in their Way to Venice , the first of whom was to have gone from thence to Constantinople , Francis thought to have met now with a fair Opportunity , because Charles had suffered a considerable loss before Algier . He therefore attack'd the Emperour with five several Armies at once . But the strongest of all , which lay before Perpignan did nothing , the Second took some Places in the Country of Luxemburgh . The Emperour Solyman also made a great Diversion in Hungary , taking Gran and some other Places . The great Pyrate Barbarossa arriv'd in Prevence with his Fleet , but did more mischief than good to France , But Charles , on the other hand , made an Alliance with Henry VIII . who was dissatisfy'd with Francis , because he had taken part with the Scots , and would not renounce his Obedience to the Pope . He , after he had beat the Duke of Cleves , who depended on the French , besieged Landrecy with a great Army , but to no purpose . In the mean time the French had obtain'd a most signal Victory over the Imperial Forces near Cerisolles in Piedmont . But the King could not prosecute his Victory , being obliged to recall his Troops , because the Emperour and Henry King of England had made an Agreement with an Army of 80000 Foot and 22000 Horse , to fall into France ; the first by the Way of Champagne , the second by the Way of Picardy , to join their Forces near Paris , to ransack the City and all the adjacent Countries as far as to the River Loire . The Emperour took by the Way Luxemburgh , lay six Weeks before Disier , got abundance of Provision in Espernay and Chasteau Thierry , which put the whole City of Paris into a great Consternation ; and no small Danger seemed to threaten that City , if King Henry had joined his Forces in time , according to his Promise : But he losing his Time in the Sieges of Boulogne and Monstrevil , A Peace concluded at Crespy , 1544. Charles hearkened to a Peace , which was concluded at Crespy . By vertue of this Peace all the Places were restored , and the Emperour promised to the Duke of Orleans , the second Son of the King , either his or his Brother's Daughter in Marriage , and to give for her Dowry either Milan or the Netherlands ; which was not performed , because the said Duke died in the Year next following . 1546. Francis also made a Peace with England , under Condition that he should have liberty to redeem Boulogne for a certain Summ of Money . He died in the Year 1547.

§ . 18. Henry II. Him succeeded his Son Henry II. to whom fell the Marquisate of Saluzze , 1548. as a Fief of Dauphine , the last Marquiss Gabriel dying without Issue . 1549. He severely chastiz'd the City of Bourdeaux , which had rebelled against him . 1550. In the Year next following he redeemed Boulogne for a certain Summ of Money from the English . In the Year 1551 , the Emperour being engaged in a War against the Turks , and the German Princes being very jealous of his Greatness , Henry thought to have met with a fit Opportunity to break with him . He began therefore in the Netherlands and Piedmont ; and having made an Alliance with Maurice Elector of Saxony , His Expedition into Germany , 1552. he marched with his Army towards the Rhine , and surpriz'd by the Way the Cities of Metz , Toul and Verdun , and would have done the same with Strasbourgh , if they had not been upon their Guard there . But the Elector of Saxony having made a Peace with the Emperour without including the King , and some Princes intreating him not to advance farther into the Empire he marched back into the Country of Luxembourgh , where he took some Places . The Emperour then besieged Metz with an Army of 100000 Men , but the Duke of Guise defended himself so bravely , that the Emperour was obliged to raise the Siege with great loss . To revenge this Affront , he attack'd Terouëne in Artois with great Fury , and rased to the Ground this Fortress , which had proved hitherto so troublesome to the Netherlands . The same he did to Hesdin , both the Garrisons being put to the Sword . On the other side the French took Siena in Italy , and several Places in the Island of Corsica , 1555. but were again beaten out of Siena , after they had been maul'd near Marciano . A Truce between Charles V. and Henry II. In the Year 1556 , a Truce was concluded at Vaucelles near Cambray , the Emperour being desirous to leave the Kingdom to his Son ( to whom he had surrender'd the same ) in Peace . But the Truce was scarce confirm'd by Oath , when the French , upon the Instigation of Pope Paul IV. broke the same again , who having some Differences with Spain persuaded Henry to take his part . The Duke of Guise was therefore sent into Italy with an Army , but did nothing worth mentioning . In the mean time King Philip had gathered an Army of 50000 Men , hoping thereby to establish his Reputation in the beginning of his Reign , and having also drawn England into the War , he besieged St. Quintin , into which place the Admiral Gaspar Coligny had thrown himself . The Constable Montmorency advanced with an Army to the Relief of the Place , but retreating again in sight of the Enemies , they fell upon him , and gave him a terrible Defeat . 1557. France had been then in the utmost danger , if this Victorious Army had march'd directly towards Paris , and if the Enemies Design upon Lyons had not miscarry'd . But King Philip feared least the Duke of Savoy , who commanded his Army , might take this Opportunity to reconcile himself to France upon some advantageous Conditions ; wherefore he would not let him march on far into the Country , but took St. Quintin by Storm , and lost his Time in the taking of Han , Chastelet and Noyon . This gave leisure to the French to recollect themselves , and having recall'd the Duke of Guise out of Italy , they retook Calais , and those few other places which remained under the English thereabouts , as likewise Thionville in the Year 1559. A Project to unite Scotland with France misscarried . In the same Year a Project was set on foot , to unite the Kingdom of Scotland with France , by a Marriage betwixt Queen Mary and the Dauphine Francis ; but the same miscarried , no Children being born of them . The Mareschal de Fermes , who made an Inrode into Flanders was soundly beaten near Gravelingen . At last a Peace was concluded at Chasteau en Cambresis , which prov'd very pernicious for France ; because , for the Castle of Cambray , the Cities of Han , Chastelet and St. Quintin , there were not only 198 Places redeliver'd to Spain , and the Duke of Savoy restor'd , but also this Peace was partly the Occasion of those intestine Wars , which afterwards miserably tore in pieces the Kingdom of France . It was also resolv'd in France not to intermeddle any more in the Italian Affairs , and to dissolve the Alliance with the Turks . After this Peace was concluded Henry was kill'd in a Turnament , a Splinter of a broken Lance having got into his Eye ; for the King had challeng'd the Earl of Montgomery to run against him with an open Vizier , and as soon as he was wounded he lost both his Senses and Speech , and died within eleven days . By this Accident , the Wedding which he celebrated for his Sister Margaret , which was married to Chilibert Emanuel Duke of Savoy , was very mournfully consummated .

§ . 19. Francis II. Him succeeded his Son Francis II. under whose Reign the French Divisions began to break out with Fury in their own Bowels , which continued near 40 Years , whereas formerly the violent Heat of this Nation had been quell'd , partly by the Wars with the English , partly by the several Expeditions undertaken against Italy . The Causes of the intestine Wars of France . Concerning the Causes of these Intestine Wars , it is to be observ'd , That after the House of Valois came to the Crown , the next in Blood were those of the House of Bourbon , which House was grown so Potent , by its Riches , Power and Authority of a great many brave Persons , which descended from it , that the preceding Kings were grown extreamly jealous of it . And , tho' Francis I. at the beginning of his Reign did constitute the Duke of Bourbon Constable ; yet being soon convinced afterwards , of the Reasons which had induc'd his Ancestors to keep under this House , he us'd all his Endeavours to humble the said Charles of Bourbon . For this Reason he enter'd into a Conspiracy against Francis , which having been discover'd , he went over to Charles V. and commanded as General in the Battel near Pavia , where Francis was taken Prisoner , and was slain in the storming of Rome . 1527. By his Death the House of Bourbon receiv'd a great blow , those who were left being look'd upon with a very ill Eye , tho' they kept themselves very quiet to extinguish the Suspicion and Hatred conceiv'd against them . The House of Bourbon being thus brought very low , the two Houses of Montmorency and Guise held up their Heads under the Reign of Francis I. The first was one of the most ancient in France ; the latter was a Branch of the House of Lorrain . The Head of the first was Annas Montmorency , Constable of France ; of the latter Claude Duke of Guise . Both of them were in great Favour and Authority with Francis I. but both fell into Disgrace at the latter end of his Reign , being banish'd the Court . It is related of Francis I. that just before his Death he advised his Son Henry to consult with neither of them in his Affairs , since too great and too able Ministers proved often dangerous . Yet notwithstanding this , Henry II. did receive both Annas Montmorency and Francis de Guise , the Son of Claude , into his particular Favour ; who quickly grew jealous of one another , the first taking much upon him because of his Experience in State Affairs , and Gravity , the latter being puff'd up with the Glory of Martial Exploits , The House of Guise rises , and that of Bourbon declines . and the Applause of the People ; the Authority of the Duke of Guise was greatly encreas'd after he had repuls'd Charles V. from before Metz , and taken Calais ; whereas the unfortunate Battel fought near St. Quintin , and the ensuing dishonourable Peace were very prejudicial to Montmorency , But the House of Guise got the greatest Advantage , after Francis II. had marry'd Mary Queen of Scotland , whose Mother was Sister to the Duke of Guise : So that during the Reign of Francis II. the Duke of Guise and the Cardinal his Brother , were the Men that bore the greatest Sway in the Kingdom ; which extreamly exasperated Montmorency and the two Brothers of Bourbon , Anthony King of Navarre , and the Prince of Conde , seeing themselves thus neglected . And tho' Anthony was of a very modest Behaviour , watching only an Opportunity to regain his Kingdom of Navarre from the Spaniards , and having a sufficient Revenue out of his Country of Bearn , wherewithal to maintain himself ; yet the Prince of Conde was Ambitious , Poor , and of a turbulent Spirit , who was not able to maintain his Grandeur without some considerable Employment . Besides this , he was continually stirr'd up by the Admiral Gaspar Coligny , an ambitious , cunning and fly Man ; who , as his Enemies will have it , was very forward to fish in troubled Waters ; his Brother d' Andelot also being of a very wild and turbulent Spirit . These three only watch'd an Opportunity to raise Commotions in the Kingdom . Thus the great Men of the Kingdom were divided into these several Factions , at the Time when Francis II. began his Reign , a Prince scarce sixteen Years old , weak both in Body and Mind , and therefore incapable to rule the Kingdom by himself . Several therefore pretended to have a right to the Administration of the Government , Divisions about the Administration of the Government . these of Bourbon , as being the next Princes of the Blood ; the House of Guise , as being nearly related to the Queen , and the Queen Mother Catharine de Medicis , the very pattern of an aspiring and cunning Woman , hoped , That whilst the Princes were in contest about the Administration of the Government , it would fall to her share , wherefore she always fomented the Divisions , by keeping up the Balance betwixt them . This Catharine first sided with the House of Guise , dividing the Administration of Affairs with them , so that she was to have the Supream Administration , the Duke of Guise was to manage the Military Affairs , and his Brother the Cardinal the Finances . This Agreement being made betwixt them , the Constable , under pretence of his old Age was dismiss'd from Court , and the Prince of Conde sent as Ambassadour into Spain . These , who were thus excluded , had a meeting , to consider which way they might free themselves from these Oppressions , where it was resolv'd that the King of Navarre should intercede for them at Court ; who being put off with fair words and empty Promiess , set himself at rest . Conde was resolv'd to try his Fortune by force ; but having not a sufficient Interest , Coligny advised him , he should side with the Huguenots ( for so they call●d in France those who profess'd the Protestant Religion ) who labour'd then under a severe Persecution and wanted a Head , under whose Conduct they might obtain the free Exercise of their Religion : Besides that , they mortally hated those of Guise , whom they supposed to be the Authors of their Persecution . The Business was thus concerted ; That the Huguenots should assemble in private , and some of them by a humble Petition to request the free Exercise of their Religion at Court ; which , if it should be refus'd , the rest should be at hand , to kill those of Guise , and to force the King to receive , the Prince of Conde for his chief Minister of State . The Execution of this Design was undertaken by a certain Gentleman call'd Renaudie ; but the Enterprize being deferr'd for some time , because the Court went from Blois to Amboise , it was discover'd , and thereby render'd inpracticable , above twelve hundred that were taken paying with their Lives for it ; Conde was also sent to Prison , and was just upon the point of receiving Sentence of Death , when Francis II. after a very short Reign , died suddenly of an Ulcer in the Head , 1560. which caused great Alterations in the Affairs of the Kigdom .

§ . 20. Charles IX . Him succeeded his Brother Charles IX . then scarce eleven Years old , whose Tuition his Mother Catharine took immediately upon her self , hoping to enjoy it quietly , whilst the Houses of Bourbon and Guise were engag'd in mutual Quarrels ; wherefore she was very carefull to uphold these Jealousies betwixt them . To find an Opportunity to set up the Prince of Conde and his Party , thereby to balance those of Guise , she pretended to be no Enemy to the Protestant Religion , under which Pretence the same was much in request at Court. To suppress the reformed Religion , Montmorency , the House of Guise , and the Mareschaal of St. Andrew , join'd in a Confederacy , who calling themselves the Triumvirate , drew also the King of Navarre in to their Party . The Conferenec of Poissy . After this a Conference and Disputation was held betwixt some Divines of both Religions at Poissy , after which , the Royal Protection was by a publick Edict , promis'd to the Protestant Religion ; 1562. which from the Month is call'd the Edict of January . This extreamly exasperated the Triumvirate , so that in the very same Year the War commenc'd . The first Huguenot war . The first occasion of it was given by some belonging to those of Guise , who in a small Town call'd Vassy , disturb'd the Protestants in the Exercise of their Religion ; and a Quarrel arising thereupon , kill'd near threescore of them : Which was the first Blood shed in this Civil War ; and from this time Things went very strangely in France . It is not our purpose to enumerate all the Cities that were taken , neither to speak of all the small Skirmishes which are innumerable , nor the Cruelties committed on both sides , and the Barbarities of the Rabble ; it will be sufficient for us to touch upon some of the main points . In this first War the King of Navarre died of a Wound , which he receiv'd in the Siege of Roan , Near Dreux a bloody Battel was fought , where Conde at first had the Advantage , but his Souldiers falling to plundring , he was beat back again , he himself being made a Prisoner , and the Mareschal St. Andrew being kill'd by a Shot , 8000 Men were slain upon the Spot , and the Loss near equal on both sides ; the Duke of Guise kept the Field , but was afterwards , at the Siege of Orleans , treacherously murther'd by one Poltrot , with a Pistol-shot , who was supposed to have committed the Fact by instigation of Coligny . Soon after a Peace was made . It is related , 1563. that above 50000 Huguenots were slain in this War ; on the other side , they took the Church-plate and Ornaments , which they having turn'd into Money , Silver was after this War more currant in France than before . But Catharine had persuaded her self , that both Parties were reduc'd to that Condition , that she could now handle them at pleasure . After the Peace was concluded the English were again beaten out of Havre de Grace , which the Huguenots had given them as an Acknowledgment for their Assistance . This Peace lasted no longer than till the Year 1576 , when the Huguenots were persuaded , that at the interview betwixt Catharine and the Duke of Alba at Bayonne , a League was set on foot for rooting out the Hereticks : And in effect , they were immediately after more severely dealt with , and , as it was reported , the Prince of Conde and Coligny were to be secur'd . The Second War . The Huguenots therefore began the Second War , during which , the Constable Annas Montmorency being mortally wounded in an Engagement , he told a Monk , who at his last Hour was very troublesome to him ; He should let him be at quiet , since during the Time of 80 Years that he had liv'd , he had learn'd how to employ one quarter of an Hour in dying . The Huguenots got great Reputation for Valour in this Engagement , they being much Inferiour to the other in Number . About the same time the City of Rochelle declar'd for the Huguenots , which afterwards for 60 Years together serv'd them for a secure Retreat . 1568. Then a second Peace was concluded , not with an Intention to keep it , but that each Party might find a better Opportunity to take Advantage of one another ; nor were the Conditions ever fulfill'd . The War therefore was renewed in the same Year , The Third War during which the Prince of Conde was kill'd by a Shot , 1569. in a Battel near Jarnack . The Prince of Conde being slain , the King of Navarre is declar'd Head of the Huguenots . After his Death the Huguenots declar'd Henry King of Navarre , the Son of Anthony , who afterwards was King of France , their Head , tho in effect Coligny had the chief management of Affairs . He in vain besieged Poictiers , in the Defence of which Place the young Duke of Guise gave the first proofs of his Valour ; he was also soundly beaten near Moncontour , where he lost 9000 Foot . He lost nevertheless nothing of his former Reputation , for he quickly recollected his broken Troops , and got together a great Army , being assisted by Queen Elizabeth with Money , and by the Paltzgrave with Souldiers . 1570. He directed his March towards Paris , whereupon a Peace was concluded to the great Advantage of the Huguenots , the four strong Cities of Rochelle , Montauban , Cagnac and Charité being given them for their Security : But the main design of this Peace was , that the King perceiving , that the Huguenots could not be suppress'd by Force , hop'd he might win them by Policy , therefore endeavour'd by fair Words and great Promises to make them secure . The Admiral was caress'd at Court , he being consulted withall concerning an Expedition to be undertaken against the Spaniards in the Netherlands . A Marriage also was concluded betwixt Henry King of Navarre and Margaret the King's Sister , to which Wedding they invited the chief of the Huguenots , The Parisian Massacre , with a Design to cut their Throats in Paris . And first of all the Admiral Coligny , as he was going home from Court , was by sorne Villains , who were suborn'd by the Duke of Guise , shot with two Bullets through the Arm. Then it was agreed , That in the Year 1571 , on the 24th Day of August , early in the Morning , when the Bells were ringing to Prayers , all the Huguenots should be massacred , except the King of Navarre and the young Prince of Conde : The Execution of this Enterprize the Duke of Guise had taken upon himself . The beginning of whose Massacre was made with Coligny , who was ill of his Wounds ; then it fell promiscuously upon the rest , the Fury of the Mob not ceasing till after seven Days slaughter . A great many other Cities of France follow'd the Example of Paris , so that within few Days near 30000 were miserably massacred . The King of Navarre and Prince of Conde were forc'd to abjure the Reformed Religion . This was the so much celebrated Parisian Wedding , which Gabriel Naude would fain represent us a State 's Trick , but this is , in my Opinion , The Fourth War . a very gross way of arguing . Nevertheless the Huguenots did quickly recollect themselves , after the first Consternation was over , renewing the War with great Animosity and Revenge . During this War the King's Army besieged Rochelle near eight Months together , and having lost 12000 Men before it , News was brought , That the Duke d' Anjou was elected King of Poland . Hence an Opportunity was taken to raise the Siege with some Reputation , and to make a Peace the fourth time with the Huguenots ; by vertue of which , 1573. the Cities of Rochelle , Montauban and Nismes were given them for their Security . But immediately , The Fifth War . in the Year next following , the fifth War commenc'd ; at which time also a third Faction arose in France , which was call'd , that of the Politicians ; they pretended , without having any regard to the Religious Differences , to seek the publick Welfare , to have the Queen remov'd from the Administration of the Government , and the Italians and those of Guise to be banish'd the Kingdom of France . The Heads of this Faction were those of the House of Montmorency , who intended , during these Troubles , to play their own Game . These were afterwards very instrumental in helping Henry IV. to the Crown . During these Troubles Charles IX . died , leaving no legitimate Issue behind him .

§ . 21. Henry III. After the Death of Charles IX . the Crown fell to Henry III. who was at that time in Poland , during whose absence his Mother Catharine govern'd the Kingdom , which was in a very confus'd Estate . He left Poland privately , and taking his Way by Vienna and Venice , arriv'd safely in France . But after he had taken upon him the Administration of Affairs , he deceiv'd every body in those Hopes which were conceiv'd of him before . For he being addicted only to his Pleasures and Idleness , was led away by his Favourites , leaving the chief Administration of the Kingdom to his Mother . The Huguenots Power encreas'd remarkably after the Duke of Alenson , the Kings Brother , sided with them , and Conde and the Paltzgrave , John Casimir , led an Army out of Germany into France ; besides that , the King of Navarre found means to make his escape out of Prison . The fifth Peace was therefore concluded with the Huguenots , whereby they obtain'd very advantageous Conditions . About the same time a new Faction was set up , The Holy League . which was compos'd of a great many small ones , this was call'd The holy Vnion , or League , which reduc'd France to the most miserable Condition that could be . The chief promoter of it was Henry Duke of Guise , who , perceiving , that the great Authority which he had among the People , made him to be hated by the King , endeavour'd to make a Party of his own . He made use especially of the Priests and common People of Paris ; among whom the Name of the Guises was in great Veneration . He was encouraged to undertake this Design , because the King was despis'd by all , and the Women by their Intrigues , rul'd at Court . Besides this , he pretended to be descended from the Race of Charles the Great , which was excluded unjustly from the Crown by Hugh Capet . The Pretence of this League was the Catholick Religion ; and there was a Draught made of this League , which contain'd chiefly three things , viz. The Defence of the Catholick Religion ; the Establishment of Henry III. in the Throne , and the maintaining the Liberty of the Kingdom , and the Assembly of the States . Those who enter'd into this League promis'd to be obedient to such Head or General as should be chosen for the Defence of this League , all which was confirm'd by Oath . At the first setting up of this League the King conniv'd at it , hoping thereby the sooner to subdue the Huguenots ; nay , he himself subscrib'd the same at the Dyet at Blois , 1577. declaring himself the Head of this League . The Sixth War . Then the sixth War was begun against the Huguenots , but the King made Peace with them the same Year , notwithstanding that they were in a very ill Condition , neither was any thing done worth mentioning in this War . The War being ended , the King returning to his Pleasures , confounded great Summs of Money , and therefore laid new and heavy Impositions upon the People , and his Favourites grew very Insolent ; which increas'd the Hatred against him , and at the same time the Respect and Love of the People to those of Guise . Besides this , the Duke of Alenson , the King's Brother , declaring himself Lord of the Netherlands , Spain enters the League . Philip King of Spain was provoked to revenge himself of the French , and upheld the League . The Seventh War . In the Year 1579 the Seventh War was begun against the Huguenots , wherein also they succeeded very ill . Notwithstanding this the King made a Peace with them in the Year next following he being unwilling that they should be quite rooted out , for fear that the League might prove too strong for himself . The German Horse were also much fear'd , and the Duke of Alenson was very forward to have the Peace concluded , that he might be at leisure to employ his Forces in the Netherlands . This Peace lasted five Years , during which time the Hatred against the King increas'd daily , because of the heavy Taxes which were devour'd by his Favourites . He made himself also the more despis'd by playing too much the Hypocrite , and by transforming himself almost into a Monk . The French Glory was also much eclips'd , when the Duke of Alenson behav'd himself so ill in the Netherlands , and the French Fleet which was sent to the Assistance of Anthony the Bastard , was totally ruin'd near Tercera . But the League grew very strong after the Death of the Duke of Alenson , the King 's younger Brother , the King having no hopes of any Issue of his Body : Then it was that the Duke of Guise propos'd to himself no less than the Crown , tho' he for a colour set up the Cardinal of Bourbon , thereby to exclude the King of Navarre . And because it was suspected that the King favour'd the King of Navarre , the Priests began to thunder in the Pulpits , and to make horrid Exclamations , that the Catholick Religion was lost ; the Duke of Guise enter'd into a Confederacy with Philip , who was to furnish great Summs of Money under pretext of maintaining the Catholick Religion , and to assist the Cardinal of Bourbon in obtaining the Crown ; but in effect , this Intention was to uphold the Divisions in France , 1585. thereby to disenable it to take part with the Netherlands . Then the Leaguers began to break out into an open War ; and having taken a great many Towns , oblig'd the King , according to their Demands , to forbid the Exercise of the Protestant Religion in France . The Eighth War . And so began the Eighth War against the Huguenots , and if the King had been in earnest to ruin them , they would have been in a very ill Condition : For tho' the King of Navarre beat the Duke de Joyeuse near Coutras , 1587. yet did he not prosecute his Victory . And about the same time the Duke of Guise dispers'd the German and Swiss Forces , which under the Command of Fabian de Dona were marching to the Assistance of the Huguenots . This Army , being destitute of a good Commander was miserably maul'd , and the rest sent home in a very shamefull Condition . This Victory acquir'd the Duke of Guise great Applause and Favour among the People , and still lessen'd the Value of the King's Person ; so that the Priests now did not stick to exclaim against the King in their Sermons , calling him a Tyrant . The King therefore having resolv'd with himself to punish the Heads of the League in Paris , The League force the King from Paris . they broke out into open Rebellion , and having sent for the Duke of Guise as their Protector , the King was oblig'd to leave Paris by Night : But the King perceiving that more Cities sided daily with the League , 1588. and despairing to overcome them by Force , took another Course to obtain his Ends , and made an Agreement with the Duke of Guise , with great Advantages on his and the Leaguers side : He pretended also to have forgotten all past Injuries , on purpose to inveigle the Duke of Guise . And under these specious pretences he got him to appear at the Assembly of the Estates at Blois . In the mean time the Duke of Savoy had taken from the French the Marquisate of Saluzze , the only Province left them in Italy : But the Estates , who were most of them Creatures of the Duke of Guise , being very urgent in their Demands , to have the King of Navarre declar'd incapable of the Crown , and the Duke of Guise to be made Constable , The Duke and Cardina of Guise assassinated by the King's Order at Blois . the King caus'd the Duke of Guise and his Brother the Cardinal to be murther'd . This put those of the League into a Rage , and with the Assistance of the Priests , the King was in Paris publickly declar'd to have forfeited the Crown . Most of the great Cities of France being stirr'd up by the Example of the Parisians did the same , declaring the Duke de Maine , Brother to the Duke of Guise , Lieutenant-General of the State and Crown of France , and Supream Head of the League ; who endeavour'd , but in vain , The King makes use of the Huguenots against the League . to surprize the King in Tours . The King then being overpower'd by the League , and besides this , excommunicated by the Pope , was oblig'd to make an Agreement with the King of Navarre and to make use of the Huguenots . And having got together a great Army , he march'd towards Paris , with a Resolution to reduce that City to Obedience by Force of Arms : But the day before the general Attack was to be made , one James Clement , a Jacobin Monk , brought a Letter out of the City directed to the King , which whilst he deliver'd , pretending to whisper the King , thrust a Knife into his Bowels , of which Wound he died the day following : Aug. 2. 1589. The last of the House of Valois .

§ . 22. Henry IV. Henry IV. whom we hitherto have call'd the King of Navarre , and , who was the first of the House of Bourbon , did at the beginning of his Reign , meet with no less Difficulties than he had met with before . For tho' he was lawfull Heir to the Crown , yet the Protestant Religion , which he profess'd , was no small obstacle , for as long as he was addicted to that , the League , the Pope , and Spain , would questionless oppose him with all their might : But if he chang'd his Religion he was in danger of losing the Assistance of the Huguenots which had been steady to him , and so set himself betwixt two Stools . His Difficulties on the account of his Religion . And it would have been very unbecoming , to have so publickly accommodated his Religion to his Interest . Notwithstanding this , immediately after the Death of Henry III. all the great Men of the Army assembled together , promis'd him Obedience after several Contests , under Condition , that within six Months he would suffer himself to be instructed in the Catholick Religion . But because Henry would not be bound to any certain time , but only gave them some Hopes in general terms , it was agreed , That the Huguenots should enjoy the free Exercise of their Religion , yet that the Catholick Religion should be re-establish'd in all Cities , and the Revenues restor'd to the Clergy . But , those of the League , because the Duke of Maine at that time durst not take upon him the Title of King , proclaim'd the Cardinal of Bourbon , an ancient decrepid Man , Uncle to King Henry , and who was then in Custody , their King , declaring the Duke de Maine Lieutenant-General of the Crown . The Leaguers made the strongest Party , having on their side the Common People , most of the great Cities , all the Parliaments except that of Rennes and Bourdeaux , almost all the Clergy , Spain , the Pope , and the rest of the Catholick Princes , except Venice and Florence . But the Heads were not very unanimous , and the Duke de Maine had not Authority enough to keep them in Unity . But on the King's side were almost all the Nobility , the whole Court of the deceas'd King , all the Protestant Princes and States , the old Huguenot Troops , who had done great Service to Henry , and would still have done more , if they had not mistrusted him , that he would change his Religion . Each Party watch'd an Opportunity of surprizing one another . The Duke of Maine endeavouring to surprize the King near Diep , was bravely repuls'd , which seem'd to be ominous to the League . On the other Hand , the King could not get Paris tho' he had taken the Suburbs . But Henry was not only pester'd by the League , but also for want of Money , was oblig'd to keep up his Party with fair Words and Promises . The Spaniards also began to intermeddle publickly in the Affairs of France , in hopes in this Juncture either to conquer the Kingdom , or to divide it , or at least to weaken it . But the Duke de Maine did underhand oppose these Designs , being unwilling , that in case he could not be King himself , France should fall under the Subjection of Spain . In the Year 1590 , Henry obtain'd a glorious Victory over the Duke de Maine , who had double the Number , near Ivry . Then he block'd up Paris , which was reduc'd to the greatest Extremity by Famine , but reliev'd by the Duke of Parma Governour of the Netherlands . In the Year 1591 , there arose a third Faction , the young Cardinal of Bourbon making Pretensions to the Crown , but was very fortunately disappointed in his Aim by the King . The Pope Excommunicates Henry . Then Pope Gregory XIV . excommunicated Henry , exhorting all his Subjects to withdraw themselves from their Obedience , which Difficulty Henry did not surmount without great troubles . The Spaniards also declar'd themselves more freely , Philip offering his Daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia to be made Queen of France ; which Proposal was mightily encouraged by the young Duke of Guise , he being then just escap'd out of his Custody , as 't is suppos'd , by connivance of the King , who supposed , that thereby that Party might be divided , since he would certainly endeavour to oppose the Designs of the Duke de Maine his Uncle . Proposals about setting up another King . After the Duke of Parma had rais'd the Siege of Roan , the Spaniards urg'd more and more , that the French would take a Resolution concerning the setting up of another King . And in the Assembling of the Estates in Paris , which was held for that purpose , 1593. it was propos'd , That Isabella the Daughter of Philip , being born of a French Mother , should be declar'd Queen of France , and that she should have for her Husband Ernest Arch-Duke of Austria . But the French refusing to accept of a Foreigner for their King , Charles Duke of Guise was proposed as a Husband to Isabella . This Proposition relish'd very ill with the Duke of Maine , who thought himself so well deserving , that no body ought to be preferr'd before him ; wherefore , if he could not have the Crown , he was resolv'd no body else should have it , and so employ'd all his Cunning , that there was nothing determined in the Assembly concerning this Proposition ; the King , however , plainly perceiv'd , That if he did not change his Religion , his Affairs must needs grow worse , especially , since these Catholicks , who hitherto had been of his Party did threaten to leave him , if he did not perform his Promise . He called therefore the Bishops together , The King changes his Religion . who instructed him in the Catholick Faith , and having receiv'd Absolution , he went , 1593. to St. Denys's Chapel to Mass . And that the People might tast the sweetness of Peace , and desire it , he made a Truce of three Months , which prov'd very successfull , especially , since the fundamental Pretence , namely , Henry's being a Heretick , was now remov'd . Vitry and the City of Meaux were the first that surrender'd themselves to the King in the same Year , Several Cities surrender to him . upon very advantageous Conditions ; Aix , Lyons , Orleans , Bourges and other Cities soon followed their Example . And to encourage the rest to do the same , the King caused himself to be Crowned and Anointed in Chartres , Rheims being as yet in the hands of the League . Not long after Paris was also Surrendred by the Governour Brissac ; and here the King was received with such joyfull Acclamations of the People , as if they had never been his Enemies , the Spanish Garrison being turn'd out with Ignominy , and the hissing of the Common people . Then all the rest of the Cities and Governours surrendred themselves to the King on very advantageous Conditions , which the King was willing to grant them , that he might once be put in quiet possession of the Crown , and drive the Spaniards out of France . The young Duke of Guise submitted himself , being made Governour of Provence . Then Henry denounced War against Spain , not only to revenge himself for what Troubles they had created to him before , but also to please the Huguenots , and to root out of the People their affection for the Spaniards . These were the Fruits Philip reapt for so many Millions , which he had bestowed in supporting the League . In the beginning of the same Year , 1594. a Knife was by a certain desperate Ruffian , The King assaulted and wounded by a Ruffian . called John Castel , thrust into the King's Mouth , whereby he lost one of his Teeth . It was the King's good fortune that he just bowed himself , this Villain 's aim having been at his Throat : The Jesuits banish'd , And because it was found out , that the Jesuits had been tampering with him , whose Principles also were thought very dangerous , they were banish'd out of France , but some years after restored again . Afterwards the Duke of Nevers being sent to Rome to obtain Absolution for King Henry , the same was granted by the Pope , who had been very averse hitherto to Henry ; but perceiving that he would maintain his Crown in spite of him , was now for ingratiating himself with the King . Then the Dukes of Maine , and Espernon , and Marseilles were received again into the King's favour . But the War against Spain did not succeed according to wish . For tho' the King had got some advantages over them in the Franche Comte , and had beat the Spaniards out of Han in Picardy ; yet on the other side , these took Dourlans and Cambray , the latter of which had been hitherto in the Possession of Balagny under French protection ; and in the Year 1596 , next following , they took Calais and Ardres . And tho' the King took from the Spaniards Fere , yet was that a very slender compensation of his Losses . But there happened another great Misfortune ; For the Spaniards in the Year next following took the City of Amiens by surprize , which was not re-taken without great pains . In the Year 1598 , the Duke of Mercoeur , who hitherto had stood out resolutely in Bretany , did at last submit himself , hoping thereby to obtain the said Dukedom . And to set the Huguenots at rest , he publish'd for their security that famous Edict of Nants , The Edict at Nants . as it is called , by virtue of which they have hitherto enjoyed the free Exercise of Religion . At last a Peace was concluded betwixt Henry and the Spaniards at Vervins , The Peace of Vervins . with Conditions , that such Places as were taken since the Year 1559 , should be restored on both sides . A Peace being thus concluded , and Henry resolved to be even with the Duke of Savoy , who under his Predecessour's Reign had taken Saluzze , and during the intestine Wars had raised great Troubles in Dauphine and Provence , in hopes to snatch away a piece of the dismembred Kingdom ; and tho' the Duke came in Person into France , and promised to the King to give him some other Places in exchange of the former ; yet was he not in earnest , in hopes to be upheld by Spain , or that the Marshal de Biron , with whom he kept private Intelligence , should renew the civil Commotions . But the King fell upon him , He takes from the Duke of Savoy , all that he possessed on this side the Alpes . and took from the Duke all what he was possess'd of on this side of the Alpes . At last , by Mediation of the Pope , an agreement was made , that the Duke should give to France , in exchange for Saluzze , La Bresse , Bugey , Valromay en Gex . The Italian Princes were very ill satisfied with this Peace , 1600. since there being no door left for France to enter Italy , Italy was left to the discretion of the Spaniard . But Henry being tired with so long and tedious War , was resolved at last to enjoy the sweet Fruits of Peace after so many years Troubles . But soon after a dangerous Conspiracy was discovered , The Conspiracy of the Marshal de Biron . contrived by the Mareschal de Biron , who intended with the Assistance of the Spaniards to depose the King , and to dismember the Kingdom , by setting up a great many petty Principalities ; having agreed with the rest , to have for his share the Dukedom of Burgundy . And he refusing to accept of the King's Mercy , which he was willing to grant him in consideration of his great Deserts , was condemn'd , 1602. and his Head cut off . The King being now at Peace , did employ all his Thoughts , how France might recover it self after such tedious Wars , and that good Ordinances might be establish'd , but especially that his Revenues might be encreased . He establish'd for this purpose all sorts of Manufactories , He introduces Manufacturies . and especially that of Silk , ( which afterwards drew great Riches into that Kingdom . ) But even in the midst of Peace he was continually troubled with his Queen , who was jealous about his Mistrisses ; and the Spaniards were always plotting both against his Person and Crown . On the other hand , Henry had a design to oppose the growing Power of the House of Austria , His Design to put a stop to the growth of the House of Austria . by keeping it within the Bounds of Spain , and the Hereditary Countries in Germany . And 't is said , that for that purpose he concerted Measures with the Northern Crown , with Holland , with the Protestant Princes of Germany , with the Elector of Bavaria , the Duke of Savoy , the Swiss , and even the Pope himself . To put this design in execution , he took the opportunity of those Differences which were then on foot concerning the Succession in the Country of Juliers , which , that it might not be devoured by the House of Austria , he was resolved to prevent with all his Might . This is certain , that his Preparations were greater , than seem'd to be requisite only for the business of Juliers ; for he and his Allies had got 120000 Men together , and prodigious Summs of Money . The House of Austria on the other hand did not make the least Preparations , just as if it had fore-known the fatal Blow , which happened soon after : The Army was marching towards the Netherlands , and the King ready to follow in a few days , having caused the Queen to be Crowned , and constituted her Regent during his absence ; When the King going along the Street in Paris in his Coach , which was fain to stop by reason of the great Croud of the People , He is Assassinated by Ravillac . was by a desperate Ruffian , whose Name was Francis Ravillac , stabb'd with a Knife in his Belly , so that he without uttering one word died immediately . May 14. 1610. There are some , who make no-question of it , but that this Villain was set on to commit this fact , and that it was not done without the knowledge of the Spaniards and the Queen her self . And so fell this great Hero by the hands of a profligate Wretch , after he had surmounted great Difficulties in ascending the Throne , and had avoided above fifty several Conspiracies ; which being most contrived by the Priests against his Life , were all timely discovered . His Death proved very pernicious to the Kingdom , because , during the Minority of his Son , the Power of the Great Men , and also of the Huguenots , did extreamly encrease .

§ . 23. His Son Lewis XIII . succeeded him , Lewis XIII . being scarce nine Years of Age , and under the Tuition of his Mother Mary de Medicis , she endeavour'd to preserve Peace abroad by Alliance , and at home by Clemency and Liberality towards the great Men of the Kingdom , who nevertheless several times raised Disturbances , whereby they made their own advantage , the Queen-Regent being not Powerfull enough to keep them in Obedience by force . As soon as the King had taken upon himself the Management of Affairs , 1617. he caused Concini , Marshal d' Ancre , who was born a Florentine , to be killed , he having been in great Power during the Queen's Regency , and by his Pride , Riches and Power , drawn upon himself the Hatred of the Subjects ; by his Death he hoped to appease the dissatisfied Multitude . The Queen-Mother was sent away from Court to Blois , from whence she was carried away by the Duke d' Espernon . And these Commotions were at last appeased by bestowing liberal Presents among the Great Men. 1619. About the same time Richlieu , Richlieu comes in play . afterwards made a Cardinal , began to be in great Esteem in Court , who advised the King to establish his Authority , and to take up by the Roots the intestine Evils of France . He laid this down as a fundamental Principle , That he should take from the Huguenots the power of doing him any mischief , considering that such as were dissatisfied at any time , or that were of a turbulent Spirit , took always refuge , and were assisted by them . The first beginning was made in the King 's Patrimonial Province of Bearn , where he caused the Catholick Religion to be re-establish'd . The Huguenots being greatly dissatisfied thereat , began to break out into Violence , whence the King took an opportunity to recover several Places from them , but sustained a considerable Loss in the Siege of Montauban , till at last Peace was made with the Huguenots , under condition that they should demolish all their new Fortifications , except those of Montauban and Rochelle . In the Year 1625 , Cardinal Richlieu was made Chief Minister of France , Made chief Minister of State . about which time also the second War with the Huguenots was ended . But this Peace did not last long , because those of Rochelle would not bear , that the Fortress called Fort-Lewis , should be built just under their Noses . Richlieu therefore having taken a resolution at once to put an end to this War by the taking of Rochell , besieg'd it so close both by Sea and Land , that the English , who had had very ill Success in the Isle of Rhée , where they Landed , could bring no Succours into the place . Rochelle taken . Their Obstinacy was at last over-come by Famine , of 18000 Citizens , there having been not above 5000 left , for they had lived without Bread for thirteen Weeks . With this stroke the Strength of the Huguenots was broken , Montauban upon the persuasion of the Cardinal having demolished its Works . The cunning Duke of Roan also at last made his peace , after he had been sufficiently troublesome to the King in Languedoc , under condition , that the Cities of Nismes and Montpelier should demolish their Fortifications ; but for the rest , enjoy the free Exercise of their Religion . And thus the Ulcer , which had settled it self in the very Entrails of France , was happily healed up . The Effects of the Civil Wars . It is related by some , that these Civil Wars have devoured above a Million of People ; that 150 Millions were employed in paying of the Souldiers ; that nine Cities , 400 Villages , 20000 Churches , 2000 Monasteries , A War in Italy . and 100000 Houses were burnt or laid level with the ground . Then France applied all their care towards Foreign Affairs . 1628. The King assisted the Duke of Nevers , in obtaining the Dukedom of Mantua , which belonged to him by Right of Succession , but whom the Spaniards endeavour'd to exclude from the same , as being a French-man . In this War the Siege of Casal is most famous , in the defence of which place , the French gave incredible proofs of their Bravery . At last the business was , The first Occasion of Mazarini's Greatness . through the wise Management of the Popish Nuncio Mazarini ( who then laid the first Foundation of his future Greatness in France ) composed , and the Duke of Nevers afterwards by the Treaty made at Chierasco , establish'd in the Dukedoms of Mantua and Montferrat . The King also bought Pignerol of the Duke of Savoy , How Pignerol came into the hands of the French . that so the French might not want a door into Italy . France had also before taken part with the Grisons against the Inhabitants of the Valteline , who had revolted being assisted by the Spaniards , whereby he prevented this Country from falling into the Hands of the Spaniards , and so Matters were restored to their former State . In the Year 1631 , France made an Alliance with Sweden , allowing to that King a yearly Pension , to assist him in opposing the Greatness of the House of Austria . But when King Gustavus Adolphus began to be formidable on the Rhine , he took the Elector of Treves into his protection , putting a Garrison into Hermanstein , ( which nevertheless in the Year 1636 , The Queen Mother raises Troubles . was forced to a Surrender by Famine . ) In the mean time the Queen-Mother and the Kings Brother the Duke of Orleans envying the Greatness of Richelieu had raised some tumults . With them also sided Montmorency , who paid for it with his Head , and put an inglorious end to his noble Family , which boasted to have been the first noble Family that embrac'd the Christian Religion in France . And tho' this business was afterwards Composed , the Queen Mother being received into Favour again , yet was she so dissatisfied , because she could not Act according to her own Will ; that she retired into Flanders , and from thence into England , where she made some stay , 1642. and at last died in a very low Condition in Cologne . The King takes Lorrain from that Duke . In the Year 1633. the King took from the Duke of Lorrain his Countrey , because he had declared himself for the Emperour . And when afterwards , 1634. viz. after the Battel fought near Nordlingen the Swedish Affairs were in a very low Condition , and the House of Austria began to hold up its Head again , France broke out into open War with Spain , to balance the growing Power of the House of Austria . He took for a pretence that the Spaniards had surprized the City of Treves , and taken the Elector of Treves Prisoner , who was under French protection . And then the War began in Italy , Germany , the Netherlands and Roussilion , which was carried on with various Fortune ; yet so , that the French got the better of it at last . To touch upon some of the most remarkable Actions : The first Attack which the French made in the Netherlands did not succeed very well , they having been forced to raise the Siege of Lovain with great Loss . 1636. In the Year 1636 , Piccolomini marched into Picardy , and Galias into Burgundy , but did nothing of moment . On the other hand the French beat up the Siege of Leucate in Roussilion , 1638. and the brave Duke Barnhard of Saxen-Weimar took the Fortress of Brisac , he carrying on the War with French Money . And after the Death of this Duke , which happened not long after , the King of France brought both that Fortress and his Army over to its side with Money . Yet the French miscarried in the same Year before St. Omer and Fontarabia , before the last of which Places the Prince of Conde sustained a considerable Loss . In the same Year , viz. on the 5th . of September , Lewis XIV . was , almost by a Miracle , born of a Marriage , which had proved unfruitfull for twenty Years before . In the Year 1639 , the French were beaten before Thionville . In the Year 1640 , they took Arras , and in the same Year Catalonia , revolting from Spain , threw it self under the French Protection . In the Year 1641 , a great Misfortune hung over Richlieu's Head , the Count the Soissons having raised a dangerous Rebellion ; but , he being killed in an Engagement , wherein otherwise his Party had the better , establish'd , by his Death , the Cardinal's Authority , and the Quiet of France . In the Year 1642 , Perpignan was taken , at which Siege the King and Richlieu were both present . Monsieur Cinqmats did about that time first insinuate himself into the King's favour , hoping thereby to undermine Richlieu . And the better to balance the Cardinal , he had made some under-hand Intrigues with Spain . But the Cardinal having discovered the business , caused his Head to be cut off ; as also de Thou the younger's , because he had been privy to the business ; tho' he had advised against it , yet had he not discover'd it . From the Duke of Bouillon , who had been also of the Cabal , he took for a Punishment his strong Hold , Sedan . In the same Year Richlieu died , to his great good fortune , the King being grown quite weary of him , notwithstanding he had laid the first Foundation of the Greatness of France , May 14. 1643. which is now so formidable to Europe . The King also died not long after .

§ . 24. Lewis XIV . Lewis XIV . was but Five years of Age when he came to the Crown , his Mother 't is true bore the name of Regent of France , but in effect the Cardinal Julius Mazarini had the chief Management of the Kingdom ; Mazarini' s Ministry . which was then in a very flourishing Condition ; but every Body was for enriching himself out of the Kings Purse during his Minority ; and Mazarini was very liberal , thereby endeavouring to make them in love with his Government . But the Treasury being become empty , new Taxes were of necessity to be imposed upon the People which caused a great dissatisfaction against the Government . Nevertheless for the first Five years every thing was pretty quiet at home , and War carried on abroad . At the very first beginning of this new Government the Duke d' Austria obtained a signal Victory against the Spaniards near Rocroy ; after which he took Thionville , and Gaston the Kings Uncle Graveling ; 1644. Anguin revenged the loss which the French had sustainded the Year before near Dutlingen , and , having first beaten the Bavarian Forces near Friburg in Brisgaw , he took Philipsburg ; in the Year 1646. he beat the Bavarian Troops near Norlingen , and afterwards took Dunkirk . But in the Year next following he in vain besieged the City of Lorida . Peace of Munster . In the Year 1648. a Peace was concluded at Munster in Westphalia , betwixt the Emperour and France , by Vertue of which the latter got the two Fortresses of Brisac and Philipsburg , the Countrey of Puntgau , and part of the upper Alsatia . But as France by this Peace was freed from one Enemy , The intestine Commotions . so on the other hand the intestine Commotions put a stop to its great Progresses . The chief reason of these Troubles was , that some envying Mazarini , as being a Foreigner , they would by all means have him removed from the Helm , and this they sought with the greater Importunity , because they were not in awe of the King , who was but a Child , neither of his Mother , she being an outlandish Woman . Some of the great Men also were for fishing in troubled Waters : But above all the rest , the Prince of Conde would fain have been Master , and have made the Cardinal dance after his Pipe . The Cardinal was for bringing of him over to his Party by a Marriage propos'd to him ; but the Prince of Conde perceiving that the Cardinal was for maintaining his old Post , nor would depend on him , rejected the Offer as unbecoming the Grandeur of his House . There were also some Women of a restless Spirit concern'd in these Intrigues , among whom was Mad. de Longueville , Sister of the Prince of Conde , Mad. Chevreuse , Mombazon , and others . The first beginning was by slanderous Papers and Libels which were daily dispers'd in Paris . 1648. There was also a certain Faction set up , The Slingers . who called themselves the Slingers , because they openly undertook to knock down the Cardinal , as David struck down the Giant Goliah by the help of his Sling . The Heads of this Faction were the Duke of Beaufort , and Guadi the Archbishop of Paris , afterwards call'd the Cardinal de Rez . With this Party also sided the Parliament of Paris , which did pretend to have a great Authority against the Government at that time . The first Insurrection was made in Paris , occasion'd by the taking into Custody of one Braussel a Member of the Parliament , whereupon the King left the City . Yet the Business was compos'd for that time , some things having been granted to the mutinous Party . But the Faction of the Slingers renewing their former Disturbances , The King forc'd to leave Paris , 1649. the King left the City a second time . The Parliament having then publickly condemn'd the Cardinal , grew every day stronger , Turenne , who then commanded the French Army in Germany , having declar'd for that side ; but he was fain to leave the Army , which was kept in Duty by the help of a good Summ of Money . And tho' Matters were afterwards reconcil'd a second time at St. Germains , yet the Design against Mazarin was not laid aside ; the Prince of Conde , who had brought over the Slingers to his Party , not ceasing to stir them up against him . But because they had a different Aim , for the Slingers were for totally pulling down of the Cardinal , but the Prince of Conde would only have humbled him , the Cardinal cunningly rais'd a misunderstanding betwixt them , by setting the Prince of Conde against the Slingers . Whereupon the Slingers were reconcil'd with the Cardinal . The Cardinal taking hold of this Opportunity , caused the Prince of Conde and his Brother the Prince of Conti , and their Brother-in-law the Duke of Longueville to be taken into Custody . The Imprisonment of the Princes . This was putting Fuel into the Fire , every body being dissatisfy'd at the Imprisonment of the Princes . The City of Bourdeaux openly rebell'd . The Spaniards upon this Occasion took from the French , Piombino and Porto Longone in Italy . The Archduke Leopold struck Terrour into the City of Paris it self , on the side of the Netherlands . And tho' the Cardinal beat Turenne near Rethel , he being gone over to the Spaniards , yet the Hatred against him encreas'd daily , and the Faction of the Slingers , the Parliament , and the Duke of Orleans were absolutely for having the Princes set at Liberty . The Cardinal therefore perceiving that nothing was to be done by open Violence , resolv'd to avoid the Storm , by setting the Princes at Liberty : And he himself retir'd to Bruel , the Court of the then Elector of Collen . 1651. Then he was by a Decree of the Parliament for ever banish'd the Kingdom of France . The Cardinal banish'd France . Mazarini being thus remov'd , the Prince of Conde began to disturb the publick Quiet with more freedom , having engag'd himself with the Spaniards , and being gone to Bourdeaux , he began to make open War against the Government . And the Spaniards taking hold of this Opportunity , recover'd Barcellona , and with it all Catalonia . The Queen recalls him . Then the Queen recall'd the Cardinal , who having strengthen'd the King's Army by such Troops as he had got together , fought several times very briskly with the Prince of Conde . But seeing that the Hatred which the Faction of the Slingers and the Parliament had conceiv'd against him , did not diminish , he took this Course , that he publickly declar'd , he was willing to leave the Kingdom , to re-establish the publick Quiet . He hoped by so doing , to lay the Blame of the Intestine Divisions upon the Prince of Conde alone ; which Design prov'd successfull ; for thereby the Eyes of the People were opened , who now plainly perceiv'd , that the Cardinal sought the Good of the King and Kingdom , but the Prince of Conde his own Interest , Dunkirk and Graveling being lost in the Fray . The Prince of Conde therefore perceiving that he had lost the Favour of the People , retir'd with his Troops into the Spanish Netherlands . Then the Cardinal return'd to Court , and ever after had the Administration of the chiefest Affairs of the Kingdom till his Death , without any further Opposition . The City of Paris return'd to its due Obedience , the Faction of the Slingers was dissolv'd , the Duke of Orleans left the Court ; Rez was taken into Custody , and Bourdeaux forc'd to submit . In the Year next following the French began again to make War on the Spaniards ; 1653. they took Mommedy with great difficulty , and fortunately reliev'd Arras : But they were beaten from before Valenciennes and Cambray . France having just made an Alliance with Cromwell , 1658. the joint Forces of France and England besieged Dunkirk under the Command of Turenne : And the Duke John d' Austria and Prince de Conde , who came with an Army to relieve it , being repuls'd with great loss , the City was taken and deliver'd to the English , from whom the King afterwards redeem'd it for four Millions . 1662. About the same time Graveling was also retaken . The Pyrenaean Peace , 1659. At last a Peace was concluded between France and Spain near the Pyrenaean Mountains by the two chief Ministers of State , on both sides , viz. by Mazarini and Don Lewis de Haro , by vertue of which , France was to keep Roussilion and the greatest part of the places which were taken in the Netherlands ; Mary Theresa , the Daughter of Philip IV. was to be married to the King , and the Prince of Conde to be receiv'd into Favour again . This last point met with great Opposition for a considerable time . The Death of Mazarini . In the Year next following died Mazarini , who , as 't is said , left the King among others , this Lesson , That he should govern himself , and not trust entirely to any Favourite . The first thing of moment , which the King undertook , was , to settle his Revenues in a good order . 1661. He began with the Lord High Treasurer Fouquet , whom he took into Custody , and made a strict Inquisition against all such as having had hitherto the management of his Revenues , had enrich'd themselves therewith : The Sponges which were swell'd up with Riches , being soundly squeez'd out , brought an incredible Treasure into the King's Coffers . A Dispute about Precedency between the French and Spanish Embassadours . In the Year 1661 a Difference arose betwixt the French and Spanish Embassadours in London , about the Precedency at the solemn Entry made by Count Nile Brake the Swedish Embassadour , where the French Embassadour's Coach was put back by Violence . This might easily have prov'd the Occasion of a War , if the Spaniards had not given Satisfaction to the French , and agreed , That where-ever there were any French Embassadours resident , the Spanish should not appear upon any publick Occasions : Which the French do interpret , as if Spain had thereby declar'd , That the Spanish Ministers were always to give place to the French of the same Character . In the Year 1662 , A Treaty with the Duke of Lorrain . the King made an Agreement with the Duke of Lorrain , according to which , he was to exchange his Dukedom for an Equivalent in France , and his Family to be the next in right of Succession , if the Family of Bourbon should happen to fail : Which Agreement the Duke would fain have annull'd afterwards , but the King , who did not understand jesting in such a point , forc'd him to surrender to him Marsal . A Differance with the Pope . In the same Year the Duke de Crequi the French Embassadour at Rome , was grossly affronted there by the Corsi Guards , which the King resented so ill , that he took from the Pope the City of Avignon : But the Difference was compos'd by the Mediation of the Grand Duke of Tuscany at Pisa , and the Pope was fain to send a splendid Embassy to give Satisfaction to the King . About the same time the French would have got footing at Gigeri on the Coast of Barbary , but were repuls'd with considerable loss by the Moors . 1664. The King also sent some Troops to the Assistance of the Emperour against the Turks , who behav'd themselves bravely in the Battel fought near St. Gothard , and contributed much to the Victory . Notwithstanding which the Emperour clapt up a Peace with the Turks , fearing lest the King of France might make use of this Opportunity to fall into the Netherlands . Yet those Forces , which were sent to the Assistance of the Venetians into Candie , did not acquire so much Glory , they being too forward and hot in the first Onset , where they lost the Duke of Beaufort . In the Year 1665 , the King of France kindled a War betwixt the English and Dutch , thereby to weaken their Naval Force , which was so formidable to him , and in the mean while to get leisure to conquer the Netherlands . He attacks Flanders . In the Year 1667 , he enter'd the Netherlands in person , and took Charleroy , Lisle , Tournay , Doway , Courtray , Oudenarde , and some other places , pretending , that the Netherlands did belong to him in right of his Queen , by vertue of the jus devolutionis or right of devolution , in Brabant , notwithstanding that in the Marriage Contract she had renounc'd all her Title to it . He also conquer'd the County of Burgundy , but after having demolish'd the Fortifications he restor'd it again , but kept those places which he had taken in the Netherlands , by vertue of the Peace concluded at Aix la Chapelle . The tripple Alliance , Peace made at Aix la Chapelle , 1668. as it is call'd , made betwixt Sweden , England and Holland , which was intended for the Preservation of the Netherlands , did greatly hasten this Peace ; tho' France afterwards found out a way to draw the English Court from this Alliance , and to join with him in humbling the Hollanders , who he said were too proud . For tho' France all along had been in the Interest of Holland , yet the King took it very ill , that the Dutch had made a Peace at Munster without including France , and that they had been so bold as to undertake the Preservation of the Netherlands ; 1667. and when afterwards the King put strong Garrisons into the conquer'd places , they sent a Fleet on these Coasts , as it were to brave him . The tripple Alliance also was displeasing to him , and some are of Opinion , that the King of England , who had not forgot the Business at Chatam , and that the Peace concluded at Breda was not according to his wish , had engag'd himself in this Alliance , only to draw in the Dutch thereby , and so to exasperate the King of France against them . He invades Flanders , 1672. At last , France in conjunction with England , made War on Holland , with prodigious Success at first ; for he took three Provinces , viz. Gueldres , Over-yssel and Vtrecht ; besides that he had already possess'd himself of some Passes leading into Holland : But his Confederate the Bishop of Munster had not the same Success in the Siege of Groningen , and afterwards lost Coeverden again . And the Dutch had better Success at Sea , where they behaved themselves bravely in four several Engagements , whereas the French Fleet , as the English say , did not engage heartily : Besides , England grew Jealous of the great Success of the French , which was one reason , why the Parliament did in a manner oblige the King , to make a separate Peace with Holland , fearing , that France , after England and Holland had destroy'd one another at Sea , might also , at last , fall upon them . The Emperour and Elector of Brandenburgh endeavour'd , immediately at the beginning of the War , to give a Diversion to France but to no great purpose , since they did nothing but ruin several Provinces in Germany , and drew Turenne with his Army thither , who ravag'd the Country , but especially Westphalia . The Elector of Brandenburgh made a Peace with France at Vossem , 1673. whereby he got the Restitution of his strong Holds in the Dutchy of Cleves , but as soon as he got them into his possession , Mastricht taken by the French . he made no great account of the Peace . In the Year next following , France took the strong City of Mastricht , where the French both shew'd their Bravery and Dexterity in attacking of places . On the other hand , the Imperialists had good Success against Turenne , who pretended to oppose their March ; for they trick'd him , and having march'd to the lower Rhine , in conjunction with the Spaniard and Prince of Orange , took Bon : This , and the loss of Narden , which the Dutch took , caus'd the French to leave Vtrecht and all the other places in the United Provinces , except Grave and Mastricht : For it seem'd very difficult to maintain so many Garrisons , and at the same time to have a sufficient Army in the Field to oppose the Enemy ; since it might easily have happen'd , that all Correspondency with these places in the United Provinces might have been cut off by the Enemy . Afterwards Spain and the whole German Empire declar'd against France , and a great many were of Opinion , That the joint Power of Spain , Holland and Germany , would be sufficient to curb the French , and to carry the Seat of the War into France it self ; but this could not be effected . 'T is true , the Germans did take from the French , Philipsburgh , and beat them out of Treves , where Mareschal de Crequi receiv'd a Defeat . But on the other hand , the Germans were several times also , especially near Sintsheim and in Alsace , worsted by the French , and oblig'd to repass the Rhine . And in the Year 1675 , there was a great probability that it would not have gone very well with them on this side of the Rhine , The Death of Turenne . if the brave Turenne had not been kill'd by an accidental Shot , which oblig'd the French , who were ignorant of his Design , after a sharp Engagement , to retire on the other side of the Rhine . For the rest , Spain lost most by this War : for the Franche Compte was taken from them , The Losses of the Spaniards in this War . Messina receiv'd voluntarily a French Garrison , and the Dutch Fleet which was sent to the Assistance of the Spaniards into Sicily , got nothing but Blows , the brave Admiral de Ruyter being there slain ; tho' afterwards the French quitted Messina on their own accord . Besides this the French took from them these strong holds ; Limburgh , Conde , Valenciennes , Cambray , Yper , St. Omer , Aire and several others . The Prince of Orange retook Graves , but in the Battel of Seneffe and St. Omer , he was worsted , and sustained a considerable loss before Mastricht , At last France ended this War very gloriously for it self , Peace at Nimmegen . restoring to Holland what it had taken from those Provinces , but kept Burgundy and a great many strong places in the Spanish Netherlands . In Germany in lieu of Philipsburgh it got Friburgh , and for the rest the Westphalian and Copenhagen Treaties were renewed , by Virtue of which Sweden was restored to its own again .

§ . 25. To consider the French Nation , The French Nation . whose History we have briefly related , it must be observ'd , That it is swarming ( if I may so speak ) with People , and sow'd thick with Cities and Towns . Under the Reign of Charles IX . it is related , That above twenty Millions of People paid the Poll Tax . Some say , That Richlieu affirm'd , that by Computation , France could bring into the Field 600000 Foot , and 150000 Horse , provided every Man that was able to bear Arms , did go into the Field . This Nation also has been always warlike : nevertheless in former times , it has been objected to them , That they were very brave at the first Onset , but after their first Fury was a little cool'd , their Courage us'd to slacken , if they met with a stout and brave Resistance : wherefore they us'd to make great Conquests , but seldom kept them very long . And after they had good Success , they us'd to grow careless , insult over the conquer'd , and put them to great Hardships under their Government . But in our last Wars they have shewn sufficiently , that they as little want Constancy at last , as Heat and Fury at first . There is a great number of Nobles in France , Full of Nobility . who make Profession of the Sword , and make no difficulty to expose themselves to any Hazards to gain Glory . In former times , the French Infantry was good for nothing , wherefore they always us'd to employ Swiss and Scotch : but now a-days , their Foot are very good , and in attacking of a place , they are to be preferr'd before all other Nations . This Nation always hath a great Veneration and Love for their King ; and as long as he is able to maintain his Authority , is ready to sacrifice Life and Estate for his Glory . The French are also brisk , forward , and of a merry Constitution : as to their outward appearance in their Apparel and Behaviour , they are generally very comely ; Their Natural Qualities . and some other Nations , whose temper is more inclined to gravity , and do attempt to imitate them , appear often very ridiculous , there being a vast difference in these matters , betwixt what is natural and what is affected . They are of a Genius fit to undertake any thing , whether it be in Learning , Trade , or Manufactures ; especially in those things which depend more on ingenuity and dexterity than hard labour . On the other side , the levity and inconstancy of the French is generally blam'd , which is easily to be perceiv'd by such of them as are raw and unpolish'd ; and a great many of them glory in amorous Intrigues , oftentimes more than is true ; and under Pretence of Freedom , they commit great Debaucheries .

§ . 26. The Country which is possess'd by this potent Nation , The Nature of the Country . is very conveniently situated , almost in the very midst of the Christian World ; wherefore this King may conveniently keep Correspondence with them all , and prevent Europe from falling into the hands of any one Prince . On the one side , it has the Mediterranean , on the other the Ocean , and on both sides a great many pretty good Harbours ; and is well water'd with Rivers ; besides that great Channel with twelve Sluces , by which the present King has joyn'd the Rivers of Garonne and the Aude , and consequently the Mediterranean with the Ocean ; which proves very beneficial for Trade . It is also very near of a circular Figure , and well compacted , so that one Province may easily assist another . It s Situation . On the side of Spain , the Pyrenaean Mountains ; and on the Italian side , the Alpes are like a Bullwark to the Kingdom : but on the side towards Germany and the Netherlands , it lies somewhat open : For out of the Netherlands , Paris it self has often been hard put to it . And this is the reason why the French have been so eager in getting a good part of these into their Possession , in which they have been successfull in the last War , and thereby have mightily strengthen'd their Frontiers : and for the same reason , they have made themselves Masters of Lorrain , to fortify themselves on the side of Germany ; and by degrees to become Masters of the Rhine , the ancient boundary of Gaul , which seems the only thing wanting to the Perfection of France . Next to this , France may be one of the most happy and most fruitfull Countries , It s Fertility . not only for the equal Temperature of its Climate betwixt an immoderate Heat and an excessive Cold ; but also , because it produces every thing , which seems to be requisite for the Sustenance and Conveniency of Mankind ; so that scarce a spot of Ground is to be found in France , but what produces something or other for the benefit of Man . And its Product is not only sufficient for its Inhabitants , but also plentifull enough to be exported into foreign parts . The Commodities exported out of France , are chiefly ; Wine , Brandy , Vinegar , Salt , innumerable sorts of Silk , and Woollen Stuffs , and Manufactures , Hemp , Canvas , Linen , Paper , Glass , Saffran , Almonds , Olives , Capers , Prunello's , Chesnuts , Soap , and the like . Yet in Normandy and Picardy , grow no Vines , but the common people drink Cyder . Scarce any Metals are to be found in France , and not Gold or Silver Mines . But this want is supplied by the ingenuity of the French , and the folly of Foreigners . For the French Commodities have drawn Fleets of their Money into France , especially since Henry IV. set up the Silk Manufactury there . There are some who have computed that France sells Stuffs A-la-mode yearly to Foreigners only , to the value of 40 millions of Livres , Wine 15 millions , Brandy 5 millions , Salt 10 , and so proportionably of other Commodities . Mr. Forcy an Englishman , says , that about the year 1669 , the Commodities which were brought from France into England exceeded what were carried from England to France , in value 1600000 lib. Sterl . And it is notorious that by help of such Commodities as they send into Spain , they get a great part of their West-India Plate-Fleet . Yet Navigation does not flourish so much in France as it might . The reason seems to be , that the French Nation is not so much addicted to the Sea , and that other Nations have been before-hand with them in the East and West-Indies . Which is the reason , that the King , tho' he has above 100 Capital Ships , yet cannot set out so great a Fleet hitherto , as the English and Dutch , as some think , wanting able Seamen . For it is not sufficient to Man out a Fleet once , but in time of War , Recruits must also be had . Nevertheless it may be this King will first settle his Maritime Affairs , and afterwards take his opportunity to surprize his Neighbours . Its Plantations . France has very few Plantations abroad , except what is in the Caribby Islands , the Isles called Tartuges , and on the North-side of Hispaniola . They apply themselves also to fishing upon the great Sand Bank before Newfoundland , and catch in Canada and New France good store of Bevers . They have set several Projects on foot for the East-India Trade , but without any great success hitherto , the Dutch , who are so powerfull there , opposing them with all their might . Lastly the great strength of France may be judged of by this , that the Revenue of the Clergy , which is possess'd of two fifth parts , as 't is said , of the Kingdom , amounts to 104 millions and 500000 Crowns yearly . The King's Revenues are computed to amount now to 150 millions of Livres , whereas in the last Age it did not amount to above 9 or 10 millions . At the time of Henry IV. to 16 millions , and in the year 1639 to 77 millions ; which vast difference is in part to be ascribed to the different value of Money since those times , and the great Taxes which are imposed upon the Subjects : but without question the chief reason is , that France since that time has found out new ways to draw Money out of other Countries .

§ . 27. As to the Form of Government of France , The Government of France . it is to be observ'd , That anciently there were very potent Dukes , Earls and Lords in France , who , tho' they were Vassals of the King , yet they us'd to pay no further Obedience to him , than was consistent with their own Interest , except the Kings were in a Condition to oblige them to it : But all these in process of Time were extinguish'd , and their Countries united to the Crown . Now-a-days the Dukes and Earls in France are nothing else but bare Titles annex'd to some considerable Estate without any Sovereignty or Jurisdiction . And whereas formerly certain Countries used to be assign'd to the King's Sons , whereof they bore the Title , now-a-days only a certain yearly Revenue is allotted them , with the Title of a certain Dukedom or County , wherein perhaps they have not a Foot of Ground . And after the ancient Sovereign Dukedoms and Earldoms were abolish'd , some of the great Men of the Kingdom had taken upon themselves great Authority in the Kingdom , but by the Policy of Richlieu and Mararini they were reduc'd to such a Condition , that they dare not utter a Word against the King . The Assembly of the Estates ( there being three of them , viz. The Clergy , Nobility , and the Citizens , they making up the third Estate ) were also formerly in great Veneration , whereby the King's Power was much limited . But they having not been conven'd since the Year 1614 , their Authority is quite suppress'd . Those of the Reform'd Religion did prove also very troublesome to the Kings of France as long as they were in a Condition to take up Arms , but with the loss of Rochelle they lost the Power of giving their Kings any Disturbance for the future . And tho' the King hitherto does not force their Consciences , yet he draws off a great many from that Party , by hopes of his Royal Favour and Preferments . Heretofore the Parliament of Paris us'd to oppose the King's Designs , under pretence , that it had a right , that the King could not do any thing of great moment without its consent ; but this King hath taught it only to intermeddle with Judicial Business , and some other Concerns , which the King now and then is pleas'd to leave to its Decision . The Gallick Church also boasts of a particular Prerogative in regard of the Court of Rome , she always having disputed with the Pope some part of his Authority over her ; and the King has the Nomination of the Bishops and Abbots , all which contributes much to the Strength and Increase of this Kingdom , if a wise and good King sits upon the Throne .

§ . 28. The Strength of France with reguard to England . When we duely weigh the Power of France in comparison with its Neighbours , it is easily perceiv'd , that there is not any State in Christendom which France doth not equal if not exceed in Power : 'T is true , in former Ages the English reduc'd the French , but at that time they were possess'd of a great part of it themselves ; there were then several Demi-Sovereign Princes ; the French Infantry was then inconsiderable , and the English Bows were terrible to them : All which is quite otherwise now , and the English Land-forces are now not to be compar'd with the French neither in Number nor Goodness , since the English are unexercis'd , and their Civil Wars have rather been carried on by Armies rais'd on a sudden , than well disciplin'd Troops , and these Wars have not a little weaken'd this Nation . On the other hand , the English have chiefly apply'd themselves to Sea Affairs , and in this the French cannot hitherto be compared with the English ; yet England can scarce reap any great Advantages from France at Sea . For , suppose they should beat the French Fleet , yet they would scarce venture to make a Descent upon France , as having not any footing there ; and the French Privateers would certainly do great mischief to them . But if the English should once miscarry at Sea , an that the French should once get footing in England , it might perhaps prove fatal to that Kingdom , since the fate of the War must be then decided by the Issue of one Battel , England having no Inland strong Holds . In the last Age Spain prov'd very troublesome to France , To Spain . the French scarce being able to defend themselves against it , and having several times been oblig'd to make Peace upon disadvantageous Conditions : But besides , that at that time the French Infantry was good for little , and the Spanish Nation was then at its heighth , whereas now the Spanish Nobility is more for Debauchery , Gaming , and such like Intrigues , than for acquiring Glory in War ; they were then in full possession of all the Netherlands , and Charles V. had a great Advantage by being Emperour . But now-a-days the Netherlands are miserably torn to pieces , they being scarce able to Garrison the places that remain . Naples and Milan are almost in the same condition ; and France may easily secure the Coast of Provence against the Spaniards , who may be well satisfy'd if the French don't by the way of Roussilion , Navarre , or Bayonne enter Spain . To Italy . Italy is neither willing nor powerfull enough to hurt France , but these Princes are well satisfy'd if France does not pass the Alpes and disturb their Repose . To Holland . The French are not powerfull enough for the Dutch at Sea , if they have an Opportunity to make use of all their Naval Strength , yet the French Privateers may do them considerable Mischief , wherefore I cannot see what benefit Holland can reap from a War with France without an absolute necessity : For the Dutch Land-forces gather'd out of all Nations , are not likely to do any great Feats against it . The Swiss also neither can nor will hurt France , To the Swiss . they being well satisfy'd if they can get Money : Wherefore the French need not fear any thing from them , except they should make them desperate , when in Confederacy with others they might prove very troublesome . Germany seems to be the only Country , To Germany . which alone might be able to balance France ; for , if these Princes were well united , they are able to bring more numerous Armies into the Field , and that in no ways inferiour in Goodness to the French ; and perhaps they might be able to hold it out with France . But considering the present State of Germany , it seems next to an impossibility , that all the Members of the Empire should unanimously and resolutely engage themselves in a long War , and prosecute the same with Vigour : For it is not to be imagined , that all of them should have an equal Interest in the War , and some of them must expect to be ruin'd , tho' the War in the main should prove successfull ; but if it should succeed otherwise , they must be great losers by it without reprieve .

§ . 29. But if it should be suppos'd , The Strength of France in regard of a Confederacy . that France may be attack'd by a great many at once ; it is to be consider'd , that it is absolutely against the Interest of some States , to join themselves against France . For , as Affairs now stand , Portugal is not likely to join with Spain , Sweden with Denmark , Poland with the House of Austria , against France . Neither is it probable that the Italian Princes will be desirous to assist the Emperour and Spain in subduing of France , except we must suppose them to be willing to promote their own Ruin . Neither is it likely that England and Holland will agree in a War against France , for whilst one of them is engag'd in a War against France , it seems to be the Interest of the other to stand Neuter , and to promote its own Trade and Navigation . It is also not very probable , that the Princes of Germany , especially those of the Protestant Religion , should be willing to see France fall before the House of Austria ; since both their Power and Religion would stand upon slippery Ground , if not supported by a Foreign Power . Wherefore it seems to be no difficult task to persuade some of the Protestant Princes , at least , to sit still . The Swiss also are not likely to co-operate with Spain and the House of Austria in the Conquest of France , and therefore it would not be so difficult for France to defend it self against the House of Austria and all its Confederates . Not to mention here , that in such a case , Sweden and Poland would not leave France , if they were in a Condition to assist it . But it is not probable , that France should make any account upon an Alliance with the Turks , except in the greatest Extremity ; for the Mahometan Princes have learn'd by Experience , that where-ever they have intermedled with the Christians in their Wars , these commonly have clapt up a Peace , without including them , or having any regard to their Interest . On the other hand , France seems not to be strong enough to overturn all the States of Europe by his Conquests : For France may be the most potent Kingdom in Christendom , but not the only one ; and by extending its Conquests too far it would be weaken'd within : In the mean time , those lesser States bordering upon France are in great danger to be devour'd by so flourishing a Kingdom .

CHAP VI. Of the United Provinces .

§ . 1. The ancient State of the United Provinces . THat Country which is commonly call'd the Netherlands or the Lower Germany , was anciently comprehended , partly under Gaul , partly under Germany , according as they were situated either on this or the other side of the Rhine , which was the ancient Boundary of these two vast Countries . That part which was situated on this side of the Rhine , was by Julius Caesar , together with the rest of Gaul , reduc'd under the Obedience of the Roman Empire . Afterwards the Batavi and the Zealanders did also submit to the Romans , yet so , that they were rather esteem'd Allies than Subjects . And when in the Fifth Century , after the Birth of Christ , the Francks establish'd a new Kingdom in France , these Provinces were also at first united to it : But at the same time when Germany was separated from France , most of them fell to Germany , few remaining with France . The Governours of these Provinces did , in process of time , under the Names of Dukes and Earls , make themselves Demi-Sovereigns , as did also other Princes of Germany and France ; yet so , that it was a general Maxim among them , To rule the People with Mildness . And for the Security of their Liberty , they us'd to grant them great Privileges , in the maintaining of which this Nation was always very forward . The Estates also , which consisted of the Clergy , Nobility , and Cities , were always in great Authority , and would not easily suffer that any new Impositions should be laid upon the People without their consent . The Division of the 17 Provinces . These Provinces , according to the common computation , are Seventeen in number : viz. Four Dukedoms of Brabant , Limburgh , Luxemburgh , and Gueldres : Seven Earldoms of Flanders , Artois , Hainault , Holland , Zealand , Namur and Zutphen : Five Lordships of Friesland , Malines , Vtrecht , Over-yssel and Groningen . Antwerp has the title of a Marquisate of the Roman Empire . These Provinces were anciently ruled each by its Prince or Lord ; but afterwards several of them were either by Inheritance , Marriages , or Contracts united together , till most of them fell to the share of the House of Burgundy , from whence they came to the House of Austria by the Marriage of Maximilian I. who had marry'd Mary the only Daughter of Charles surnamed The Hardy . The Vnion of the 17 Provinces . And were afterwards all united under Charles V. who govern'd them in Peace and Prosperity . 'T is related , that he had once taken a Resolution to make them one Kingdom , which however he could not effect , their Laws and Privileges being so different , and they so jealous of one another , that none of them would remit any thing of their Pretences in favour of the rest . But the Reign of Charles V. over the Netherlands , proved so very fortunate , because he bore an extraordinary Affection to them , and they to him : T●eir Co●diti●n than under Charles V. For Charles was born in Ghent , educated amongst them , and liv'd a considerable time there . His Humour suited very well with theirs , he conversed with them in a friendly manner without haughtiness , employing the Netherlanders frequently in his Affairs , whereby this Nation was in great esteem at his Court . But under the Reign of his Son Philip II. these Provinces were torn to Pieces by intestine Commotions and civil Wars , which occasion'd the Rise of a potent Commonwealth in Europe . This Government having prov'd the occasion of great Alterations , it is worth our while to search both into the cause of these Commotions and the Origin of this new Government .

§ . 2. The cause of the Wars in the Netherlands under Philip II. Philip II. therefore was not a little to be blam'd , as being partly himself the cause of these civil Troubles ; for he being born in Spain , and educated after the Spanish Fashion , did favour only the Spainards , representing in all his Behaviour a perfect haughty Spaniard ; which did mightily alienate the Minds of the Netherlanders , especially after he resided altogether in Spain , and did not so much as honour the Netherlands with his Presence ; thinking it perhaps below his Grandeur , that he who was Master of so great a Kingdom , and had such great Projects in his Head , should trouble himself much about the Affairs of the Netherlanders . Tho' in all Probability these might have been kept in Obedience by his Presence ; for his Father , the sooner to appease a Tumult which was only risen in the City of Ghent , did venture to take his journey through France , and the Territories of Francis , William Prince of Orange . who was but lately reconcil'd to him . Moreover , William , Prince of Orange , a crafty , thorough-pac'd , and ambitious Man , did not a little foment these Divisions . For when Philip had taken a Resolution to go into Spain , and to commit the Administration of the Netherlands to a Governour , this Prince was contriving how Christina , Dutchess of Lorrain , might be constituted Regent of the Netherlands , and how he , by marrying her Daughter , might bear the greatest sway in the Government : But he miscarrying in both , because Philip constituted Margaret of Parma , natural Daughter of Charles V. Regent of the Netherlands , and refus'd to give his consent to the Match , was so dissatisfy'd thereat , that by doing of Mischief , he resolv'd to show his own Strength . Discontents of the Nobility and Clergy . The Earls of Egmont and Hoorn were also very much dissatisfy'd , as also a great many others , who being in great esteem with the People , were all very jealous of the Spaniards . A great many also of the Nobility were for a Change , partly out of a hatred to the Spaniards , partly because they were naturally of a turbulent Spirit , and were become poor and over Head and Ears in Debt , as having endeavour'd to outvie the Spaniards in Splendour at Court , and thereby spent more than their Incomes would allow of . The Clergy besides this , was somewhat discontented , because Philip , having created several new Episcopal Sees , would have employ'd the Revenues of several Abbies for the Maintenance of them , which did not only dissatisfie such as were in present Possession of these Abbies , but others also , who were in hopes of them for the future : for the Abbots were chosen by a free Election of the Monks in each Monastery , but the Bishops were nominated by the King . Change of Religion . But all this could not have furnish'd sufficient Fuel for so great a Flame , if Religion had not been joyn'd to them , which proves most efficacious in disturbing the Minds of the Common People , and always serves for a specious Pretence to such as are for alterations in a State . There were great numbers in the Netherlands , who had relinquish'd the Roman Catholick Religion , some of them professing the Augsburgh Confession , some the Doctrine of the Huguenots , others fell into the Errors of the Anabaptists . Charles V. had by severe Proclamations and Punishments been very hard upon them , which had serv'd for nothing else than to exasperate the Minds of the People , and to promote the new Religion . Wherefore it was the Opinion of Mary Queen of Hungary , the Sister of Charles V. and then Regent of the Netherlands , That they ought rather to be treated more mildly : But Philip had taken a Resolution to root out by force this Heresie , either out of a Zeal for the Roman Catholick Religion , or because he hoped thereby to oblige the Pope , whose Favour he stood in need of at that time . He renewed therefore his Father's Proclamation , and that with more Severity against these Hereticks ; and to put them in Execution , he was for setting up a Court of Judicature , Spanish Inquisition . according to the Model of the Spanish Inquisition ; the very Name of which was terrible to every body : And in effect , this Inquisition is a very cruel Constitution , whereby the Life , Estate , and good Name of every Subject is put into the Hands of unmercifull Priests , whose chief Glory is to be Inhuman and Rigorous in their proceedings ; and who have a power to take up and punish any person upon Suspicion only ; and tho' a Man is wrongfully accus'd , he is not to know either his Accuser or Crime , and tho' he makes his Innocence appear , yet he seldom escapes without some punishment . The Netherlanders were the more frightned , not only because in this Court , no Privileges , no Favour of the King , nor Intercessions , did avail ; but also , because they knew the Netherlanders to be free in their Speech , carrying , as it were , their Hearts upon their Tongues , and that by way of Trade they were obliged to be conversant with those of other Religions . Whereas on the other hand , it was natural and easie for an Italian or Spaniard to keep his Thoughts within himself . Some are of Opinion , That the Spaniards were glad to see that the Netherlanders did begin the Fray , hoping thereby to get an Opportunity to force them to Obedience , and by suppressing their Liberty and Privileges to rule over them at pleasure . They hoped that this Country might serve them one day for a Magazine , from whence they might conveniently attack France , England , and the Northern Kingdoms . Yet it is also most certain , that some foreign Princes did administer Fuel to nourish and augment the Flame ; especially Elizabeth Queen of England , whose Intention was , Queen Flizabeth ●●mented their Revolt . by this means to cut out so much Work for the Spaniard , that he might not be at leisure to think of Conquering others , his great Power being at that time become terrible to all Europe .

§ . 3. Thus the Seeds of Civil Commotions were sown in the Minds of the Netherlanders , about which time Philip II. 1559. went into Spain ; having so constituted the Government , that the supream Administration of Affairs should be in the Hands of the Regent and the Council of State , of which Council , besides the Prince of Orange , were the Earl of Egmont and others , The Cardinal Granville . the Cardinal Granville , a Burgundian , a wise Man , and much rely'd on by the King , who had given secret Instructions to the Regent to rule according to his Advice : But the Netherlandish Lords quickly perceiving , that the whole Government was manag'd according to the Counsels of the Cardinal , did sufficiently shew their Discontent in opposing themselves against it ; especially when the Cardinal press'd hard to execute the King's Commands concerning the Establishment of the Bishops , and rooting out of the new Religion ; the Netherlandish Lords advis'd a Toleration of the same , and to deal more gently with the People . This rais'd a general Hatred against the Cardinal , whereupon the Prince of Orange , and the Earls of Egmont and Hoorn writ to the King , That if he was not remov'd , it would be impossible to preserve the Peace of the Netherlands ; neither did they rest stisfy'd till Philip did consent to their Demands : But because the Regent was , 1564. after the removal of the Cardinal , sway'd by the President Vigilius and the Earl of Barlemont , who in every respect follow'd the footsteps of the Cardinal , this Joy did not last long , but the old Discontents being renew'd , it was said , That the Body of the Cardinal was remov'd from the Council , but his Spirit remain'd in it . Thus the Divisions continu'd in the Council of State , nor could the Proclamations against the new Religion be put in Execution , because the People began more and more to oppose them . Count Egmont sent into Spain . It was therefore with consent of the Regent and Senate agreed upon , to send the Earl of Egmont into Spain , who was to give an account to the King , of the whole state of Affairs , and to see whether the King could find out another Remedy . The King receiv'd him very courteously as to his person , but would not remit any thing from his Severity as to Religion . And imagining that the cause why this Evil had taken so deep root , was the Mildness of the Regent , he caus'd his Proclamation to be renew'd , commanding withall , That the Counsel of Trent should be introduc'd in the Netherlands . Besides these Severities a Rumour was spread abroad , That Philip had agreed with Charles IX . at Bayonne , by all Means and Ways to root out the Hereticks , which was the cause why it was resolv'd to oppose the King's Intentions . Some of the Nobility made the first beginning , An Association of the Nobility . who enter'd into an Association ( which they called the Compromise ) whereby they engag'd themselves , to oppose the Inquisition , and to stand by one another , if any one should be molested for his Religion ; but solemnly protested , That they had no other Aim by so doing , but the Glory of God , the Grandeur of the King , and the Peace of their native Country . This Association was drawn up by Philip Marnix Lord of Aldegonde , and subscrib'd by 400 Persons of Quality , among whom the chiefest were Henry of Brederode , Lewis Earl of Nassau , Brother of the Prince of Orange , the Earls of Culenburgh and Bergh . These met at Brussels , 1566. and deliver'd a Petition to the Regent , wherein they desir'd , That the Proclamations issu'd forth touching Religion might be annull'd . The Regent answer'd them in courteous but general terms , telling them , That she would know the King's Pleasure in the Matter . 'T is said , That the Earl of Barlemont , who stood then near the Regent , did tell her , That they were no ways to be fear'd , because they were only Geusen or Beggars ; which has render'd the Name of the Geusen very famous afterwards , they having had a Beggars Pouch the Coat of Arms of that Confederacy . In the mean while abundance of Pamphlets were spread abroad , which did more and more exasperate the People . And because Philip had given but a very indifferent Reception to those Deputies , which were sent into Spain , to pray for a Mitigation of these Proclamations , and had refus'd to comply in the least with the Sentiments of the People , it came to an open Insurrection . So that the new Religion was not only publickly profess'd and taught in a great concourse of People , but the Rabble also fell to plundering of Churches and pulling down of Images . Breaking of Im●ges . And tho' the Prince of Orange and the Earl of Egmont , did what they could to appease this Tumult , yet had the King conceiv'd a shrewd Suspicion as if they had been in the bottom of it ; wherefore they were consulting their own safety , but could , as yet , not come to any Resolution . In the mean time , the Regent having rais'd some Troops , and endeavour'd either by Fear or fair Words , or any other ways to reduce the dissatisfy'd Party to Obedience , some of whom did by Submission and other Services endeavour to be reconcil'd to the King . And this Design succeeded so well , that without any great trouble and the punishment of a very few , the Country was restor'd to its Tranquility : Nevertheless , because it was rumour'd abroad , that a great Army was marching out of Spain against them , a great many of the Inhabitants , and especially of the Handycrafts Trade , did retire into the neighbouring Countries . The Prince of Orange himself disliking this calm retir'd into Germany .

§ . 4. It was then the Advice of the Regent , that the King should come in person , without any great Force , into the Netherlands , and by his Presence and Clemency endeavour entirely to heal the ulcerated Minds of the People . But he follow'd the Advice of the Duke of Alva , The Duke of Alva . who advis'd to make use of this Opportunity to bring the Netherlands under the Yoak , and to strike Terrour into the rest . he march'd with a brave Army through Savoy and Burgundy into the Netherlands , 1568. and having immediately taken into Custody the Earls of Egmont and Hoorn , whom he pretended to have been underhand the Authors of these Troubles , declar'd all those guilty of High Treason that had had any hand in the Association , the Petition , and pulling down of the Images . And a Court was erected of twelve Judges , from which no Appeal was to be allow'd , where Judgment was to be given concerning these Matters , this Court was commonly call'd The bloody Council . Before this Court , the Prince of Orange and some other Lords , who were fled , were summon'd to appear , and upon non-appearance they were declar'd guilty of High Treason , and their Estates Confiscated . The same Severity was us'd against others of less note . This caus'd such a Terror among the Inhabitants , that they left their Habitations in Troops . He caus'd also Citadels to be built in several great Cities , among which one of the chiefest was that of Antwerp . In the mean time the Prince of Orange had brought together considerable Forces in Germany , some of which , under the Command of Lewis his Brother , falling into Friesland , beat the Count of Arembergh , the Governour of that Province . The Earls of Egmont and Hoorn beheaded . But soon after the Duke of Alva , having first caus'd the Earls of Egmont and Hoorn to be beheaded , march'd against him in person . Not long after the Prince of Orange fell with a great Army into Brabant , but was beaten back by the Duke of Alva , and his Forces dispers'd . The Duke of Alva , puff'd up with this great Success , did not only cause a most magnificent Statue to be erected at Antw●rp ; but having also form'd a Design to conquer the Netherlands with their own Money , he impos'd a Tax upon them , of the hundredth Penny , to be paid of the whole value of all Estates ; and besides this , the twentieth Penny to be paid of all Moveables , but the tenth of all Immoveables , as often as they were sold . This did exasperate the Netherlanders to the utmost degree . And whilst the Duke of Alva , being in great want of Money , was busie in squeezing out these Taxes , and was upon the point of forcing the Inhabitants of Brussels , who refus'd to pay it , News was brought , That the banish'd Netherlanders , who were turn'd Privateers , and had about 24 Ships of indifferent Strength , had under the Conduct of the Earl of March taken the City of Briel in Holland . Briel taken , April 1. 1571. Then most Cities of Holland , out of a Hatred to the Spaniards , and the tenth Penny , revolted from the Spaniards , except Amsterdam and Schonhoven , which remain'd for some time under the Obedience of Spain . It was a grand mistake in the Duke of Alva , that during his Regency of four Years , he had not secur'd the Sea Coasts . The revolted Places chose for their Governour the Prince of Orange , swearing to him Allegiance as the King's Stadtholder , as if they had only revolted from the Duke of Alva and not the King . A great many Privateers then join'd from France and England , who within the space of four Months made up a Fleet of 150 Ships , who had their Rendezvouz at Flushing , and afterwards did great Mischiefs to the Spaniards . The Duke of Alva was not in a condition to resist this Storm , because the Earl of Bergh had not only at the same time taken a great many places in Gueldres , Friesland and Over-yssel , but also Lewis Earl of Nassaw , had with the Assistance of the French , surpris'd Mons: Which City the Duke of Alva endeavour'd to recover by force of Arms , and the Prince of Orange , who with an Army newly rais'd in Germany , had made prodigious havock in Brabant , had in vain endeavour'd to relieve it , was retir'd into Holland . Wherefore this City was surrender'd upon Articles to the Duke of Alva . He then try'd all ways to reduce the revolted places to Obedience by force , having among others , pillag'd Malines and Zutphen , quite destroy'd Naerden , and taken Haerlem after a tedious Siege , the Inhabitants of which City were most barbarously treated .

§ . 5. The Affairs of the Spaniards in the Netherlands being by the rigorous proceedings of the Duke of Alva ( who us'd to bragg , that during his Regency of six Years he had caus'd 18000 to be executed by the Hangman ) put into Confusion , Duke of Alva recall'd . he was recall'd in the Year 1573. Lewis Requesenes succeeded him , a Man of somewhat a milder Temper , Lewis Requesenes Governour . but who had a very ill beginning of his Regency , the Fleet which he had sent out to relieve Middleburgh being destroy'd before his Eyes , and the City surrender'd to the Prince of Orange : Yet the Prince also receiv'd a great Blow ; for his Brother Lewis , who led an Army to his Assistance out of Germany , was routed near Grave upon the Mockerhyde , where he and his Brother Henry were slain in the Field . After this Victory the Spanish Souldiers mutiny'd for want of Pay , and liv'd upon free Quarters in Antwerp till all was paid . Then the Siege of Leyden was undertaken , which was reduc'd to the utmost extremity by Famine , till a Dyke of the Maese was cut through , by which means , and the help of a North West Wind at Spring tide , the Country round about being put under Water , the Spaniards , after a great loss sustain'd , were forc'd to leave it . In the Year next following the Emperour endeavour'd by his Mediation to compose these Troubles , 1574. and a Meeting was held for that purpose betwixt the Deputies of both Parties at Breda , which prov'd fruitless . Then the Spaniards took Ziricuzea after a Siege of nine Months ; but before the place was taken Lewis Requesenes died . 1576. After his Death the Council of State took the Administration of the Government into their Hands , which was approved by the King .

§ . 6. In the mean time the Hatred of the Netherlanders against the Spaniards was more and more encreas'd , especially after the Souldiers , who were grown mutinous for want of Pay , and had committed great Outrages , that the Council of State had declared them Enemies , giving leave to the Inhabitants to take up Arms against them . During which Disturbances Maestricht and Antwerp were plunder'd : Which disposed the rest , The Treaty of Ghent . to enter upon a Treaty with the Prince of Orange at Ghent , which contained , That the Provinces had made a Peace betwixt themselves , That the Proclamations issued forth during the Regency of the Duke of Alva should be annull'd , and the Spaniards sent out of the Country : Which Contract , tho' it was ratify'd by the King , yet he had taken a Resolution quickly to disunite them again . For this purpose he constituted Don John d' Austria , Don John d' Austria made Governour , his natural Brother , Governour of the Netherlands , The Prince of Orange forewarn'd the Netherlanders , That he ought not to be trusted ; notwithstanding this , he was receiv'd by plurality of Voices , they having oblig'd him to subscribe the Contract made at Ghent , and to send away the Spanish Souldiers . But the Prince of Orange and the Provinces of Holland and Zealand were not well satisfy'd with this Agreement , and the rest also quickly began to mistrust him . He gave them sufficient occasion to believe that their Jealousie was not ill grounded , when he by Surprize made himself Master of the Castle of Namur , under pretence to secure his person against any Attempts , which so disturb'd the Netherlanders , that they took up Arms to drive him out of Namur , They also took all the strong Holds , where any German Garrison was left , and demolish'd the Castles . And sending for the Prince of Orange to come to Brussels , they constituted him Grand Bayliff of Brabant . This encrease of the House of Orange made some great Men envious , who made a Party to balance it ; among whom , one of the chiefest was the Duke of Arshot . Archduke Matthew . These called in Matthew , Archduke of Austria , whom they made Governour of the Netherlands , who coming with all speed was also receiv'd by the Party of the Prince of Orange , under condition that the Prince should be his Lieutenant , and he not do any thing without the consent of the Estates . 1577. On the other hand , Alexander Duke of Parma . Alexander Duke of Parma came with an Army out of Italy to the Assistance of Don John d' Austria , who bringing with him a good number of old Spanish Troops , beat the Army of the Estates near Gemblours , and took Louvain , Philipville , Limbourgh , and several other places . The Estates then finding themselves alone not strong enough , offer'd to put themselves under the Protection of Henry III. King of France , and he having refus'd to accept it , the same offer was made to the Duke of Alenson his Brother , who having accepted of it , came into the Netherlands : But could do nothing of moment , the Provinces and great Men being so divided among themselves , that no body knew who was Master . There arose also a new Division among the Estates , when upon Request of those of the Reformed Religion , Liberty of Conscience was allow'd in the Netherlands ; which was willingly consented to by those of Ghent and others ; but Artois , Haynault , and some other Wallooon Cities , that were very zealous for the Catholick Religion , did oppose it with great violence ; and having by degrees separated themselves from the rest , set up a new Faction , who were call'd the Malecontents . During these Troubles Don John d' Austria died , Malecontents leaving the Government to the Duke of Parma , who was confirmed in his place by Philip. The Duke of Parma . He began his Regency with the taking of Maestricht , and bringing over the Wallon Provinces , viz. Artois , Haynault , and the Walloon Flanders , to the King's Party by accord .

§ . 7. The Prince of Orange therefore perceiving that the Contract of Ghent was quite broke , The Vnion of Utrecht the Foundation of the Common-wealth . and that the Great Men who envied one another , and the several Provinces , that were of a different Religion , were scarce ever to be United : And yet being desirous to secure himself , and to establish the Protestant Religion , he got the Estates of the Provinces of Gueldres , 1579. Holland , Zealand , Friesland and Vtrecht , to meet . Here it was agreed , that they would defend one another as one Body ; that they would consult concerning Peace and War , Taxes , and the like , with common Consent ; and that they would maintain Liberty of Conscience . This Union , made at Vtrecht , ( wherein also afterwards Over-Yssel and Groningen were included ) is the Foundation of the Common-wealth of the United Netherlands . At that time their Affairs were in so low a Condition , that they coined a Medal , wherein their State was represented by a Ship without Sails , or Rudder , left to the Mercy of the Waves , with this Inscription , Incertum quo fata ferant . The Fortune of the Prince of Orange absolutely depending now on this Union , he made it his business to hinder the Conclusion of the Treaty of a general Peace , which by the Mediation of the Emperour was set on foot at Collen , because a general Peace might easily have dissolved this Union . And , because the Affairs of the Netherlands grew worse and worse every day , the Spaniards having taken one after another , the Cities of Bois le Duc , Breda , Tournay , Valenciennes , Malines , and Others , and a great many of the Great Men being gone over to the Spanish Party : The Prince of Orange on the other hand being well assured , that the Spaniards one time or another would revenge themselves upon him and his friends ; and finding himself not in a capacity to maintain the Cause against them , he persuaded the Estates of the Netherlands that they should renounce all Obedience to Philip , who had violated their Privileges confirmed to them by Oath , and make the Duke of Alenson their Soveraign , with whom he had underhand made an agreement , That the United Provinces should fall to his share . And the Estates of Holland , Zealand and Vtrecht , were then for making him their Soveraign , except the Cities of Amsterdam and Gouda ; and questionless it would have been done afterwards , if his unexspected Death had not prevented it .

§ . 8. The Duke of Alenson . The Duke of Alenson having obtained the Soveraignty , raised the Siege of Cambray , which was besieged by the Spaniards , and in the year next following was at Antwerp proclaimed Duke of Brabant , and at Ghent Earl of Flanders . But his Power being confined within very narrow Bounds by the Estates , he , by the advice of his Friends , resolved to make himself Absolute . He proposed to the Estates , That if he should die without Issue , these Countries might be United with the Crown of France ; which being denied him , he took a strange Resolution ; viz. By surprize to make himself absolute Master of Antwerp , and some other Cities . For this purpose several Thousands of French were already got privately into Antwerp , which were beaten out by the Citizens with considerable Loss . They made the like Attempts upon several other Places on the same day , which every-where miscarried , except at Dendermond , Dunkirk , and Dixmuide . And thus the French having lost at once all their credit , and the affection of the Netherlanders , the Duke of Alenson , full of shame and confusion , returned into France , where he died soon after . The French intermedling with the Affairs of the Netherlands , had drawn with it another Evil ; which was , That Foreign Souldiers were again brought into the Netherlands , which was against the Agreement made with the Walloons , Then the Duke of Parma re-took Dunkirk , 1583. Newport , Winoxbergen , Menin , Alost , and some other Places in Flanders . 1584. Ypres and Bruges did also submit . And in the same Year the Affairs of the Estates received a great Blow by the Death of William Prince of Orange , who was stabb'd in his Palace at Delft by a Burgundian , whose Name was Balthasar Gerhard . Prince of Orange murthered . By whose Death the Netherlands being without a Head , were left in great confusion .

§ . 9. After the Death of Prince William , the Estates did make Maurice , His Son Prince Maurice made Stadtholider . Son of the deceased , Stadtholder of Holland , Zealand , and Vtrecht ; and he being but eighteen Years of Age , they constituted the Earl of Hohenloe his Lieutenant . But the Soveraignty they proffered to the King of France , who being at that time distracted with intestine Wars , was not at leisure to accept of it . The Duke of Parma in the mean while taking advantage of this juncture of Affairs , reduced Antwerp by Famine within a Twelve month's time ; as also Dendermond , Ghent , Brussels , Malines and Nimeguen by Force . After the Loss of Antwerp , the Estates , who were for submitting Themselves to any body but the Spaniards , The English Confederacy . offered the Soveraignty over them to Queen Elizabeth , which she refused to accept of : Yet she entred with them into a more strict Alliance , by virtue of which she obliged her self to maintain a certain number of Souldiers at her own Charge in the Netherlands , which , with all the other Forces of the Estates , were to be Commanded by an English General . And the Estates did Surrender to the Queen , as a Security for the Charges she was to be at , the Cities of Flushing , Briel and Rammakens , or Sceburgh upon Walchorn , which were afterwards restored to the Estates for the Summ of One Million of Crowns . 1616. The Queen sent Robert Dudley , 1586. Earl of Leicester , as General into Holland ; The Regency of the Earl of Leicester . who being arrived there , was made by the Estates their Governour-General , and that with a greater Power then was acceptable to the Queen ; but he did no great Feats . For the Duke of Parma not only took Grave and Venlo , and forced him from before Zutphen ; but he also administer'd the publick Affairs at a strange rate , to the great dissatisfaction of the Estates , to whom he had rendred himself suspected . Their Discontents were much augmented , after William Stanley , who was by the Earl of Leicester made Commander in Chief in Deventer , had betray'd that City to the Spaniards . The Year next following , the Earl of Leicester attempted the Relief of Sluce in Flanders , but to no purpose ; and being returned into Holland , where he by several suspicious Undertakings augmented the Differences betwixt him and the Estates , he returned very ill satisfied into England ; where , by Command of the Queen , he resign'd his Office of Governour .

§ . 10. The State of Affairs in Holland legias to mend . Hitherto the Affairs of the United Netherlands ( whom henceforward we will call Hollanders ) had been in a very ill Condition ; but from this time forwards they began to mend a-pace , and became more settled . This was partly occasioned by the Ruin of the two Provinces of Brabant and Flanders , which were reconciled to the King , upon condition , That such as would not profess themselves Roman Catholicks , should leave the Country within a prefixed time : A great many of these flocking into Holland , made its Cities very populous . Especially all the Traffick of Antwerp was transplanted to Amsterdam , which rendred that City very Rich and Potent at Sea . Besides this Philip , like those , who will hunt two Hares with one Dog , 1588. did not only attempt to Invade England with a great Fleet , but also sent in the Year next following the Duke of Parma with an Army to the Assistance of the League in France ; both which proving fruitless , the Hollanders had in the mean while leisure given them , to put themselves into a good posture . Whereas the Duke of Parma had wisely advised the King , that he should with all his Power first subdue the Hollanders , before he engaged in another War . For Maurice , whom they had , after the Departure of the Earl of Leicester , made their Generalissimo both by Sea and Land , had restored their lost Reputation . His first Attempt was upon Breda , 1590. which he took by a Stratagem . In the Year next following he took Zutphen , Deventer , Hulst and Nimeguen . And in the Year 1592 , Steenwyck and Coeverden . In the same Year the Death of the brave Duke of Parma proved a great Loss to the Spaniards . For the Spanish Souldiers growing Mutinous every-where , did not a little advance the Progresses of the Hollanders . 1592. Gertrudenbergh was taken in the sight of the Spanish Army , In the Year next following Groningen was reduced , whereby the United Provinces were made entire , and secured on this side of the Rhine . In the Year 1596 , Albert , Arch-Duke of Austria , Arch-Duke Albert , Governour of the Spanish Netherlands . arrived as Governour of the Netherlands , who began his Regency with the Taking of Hulst . And , because Philip , being oppressed with Debts , was fain to shut up his Exchequer . Albert , for want of Money , was not in a capacity to undertake any thing of moment in the Year next following , but was soundly beaten near Tougenhout . And after the Trade of the Hollanders with Spain and Portugal , whither they used to send their Ships under Foreign Flags , had been quite cut off ; whereby the Spaniards hoped the sooner to reduce them to Obedience , Necessity , and the desire of Lucre , taught them another way to obtain vast Riches . For by this means the Hollanders were forced to try whether they could Sail themselves into the East-Indies , and to attempt to find out a nearer Way thither round about the North. But this Design not succeding , they took the common Course about Africa ; and having with incredible Pains , in spite of all the Resistance made by the Portuguese , settled a Trade there , a great many Merchants and others , who knew no better way to employ their Ready-money , erected several Societies to Trade into the East-Indies : 1602. All which were by virtue of a Patent granted by the Estates , The East-India Company . formed into one Company , which did afterwards prodigiously encrease its Power in the East-Indies , and has conveyed unconceivable Riches into Holland . In the Year 1597 , Maurice took Rhinebergh , Meurs , and all the rest of those Places of Over-Yssel , which were as yet in the possession of Spain .

§ . 11. In the Year 1598 , they found out another Decoy for the Hollanders . For because it was generally pretended , that they would not live under Spanish subjection , Philip found out this artifice : He Married his daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia to Albert , Isabella Clara Eugenia . Arch-Duke of Austria , giving unto her as a Dowry Burgundy and the Netherlands ; yet , with this Condition , That the same should return to Spain , if no Heirs proceeded from this Match , which the Spaniards were very well assured of , the Princess being pretty well in Age ; and besides this , having been spoiled before by means of some Medicaments administred to her to prevent Conception . The Netherlands being then by this means , according to outward appearances freed from a Foreign Subjection , as having got their own Prince , it was hoped the Hollanders would the easier re-unite themselves with the other Provinces ; because a Peace being lately concluded betwixt France and Spain at Nervin , the Hollanders had thereby lost their chief Confederate . But the Hollanders remained stedfast in their former Resolution , rejecting all Propositions of Peace made by the Emperour and the Arch Duke Albert. In the Year 1600 , Battel near Newport . Maurice fell into Flanders , with an intention to besiege Newport , but was met by Albert , where a bloody Battel ensued , and Maurice obtained a most glorious Victory , who was otherways always averse to Field-fights , and would never have resolved at that time to have ventured the whole Fortune of Holland upon the Issue of a Battel , if he had not been forced to it ; wherefore , without attempting any thing farther , he returned into Holland . Siege of Ostend , 1601. Albert then undertook the Siege of Ostend , during which both sides did their utmost , till Ambrose Spinola forc'd the place , the besieg'd having no more room left to make any Retrenchments . 'T is said , The Conquests on both sides . that the Hollanders lost within the Town above 70000 Men , and the Spaniards without a great many more . But in the mean time the Spanish Fleet under the Command of Frederick Spinola was destroy'd , and Rhinebergh , Grave and Sluce taken by Maurice . In the Year 1605 , Spinola retook from the Hollanders , Lingen , Groll and Rhinebergh , and Maurice sustain'd some loss before Antwerp . The last glorious Action in this War was , that of James Heemskirke , who burned the Spanish Fleet in the Harbour of Gibraltar , where he himself was kill'd . The Spaniards therefore finding it impossible to reduce Holland by force , which they found encreas'd in Strength by the War ; and being besides this , jealous of Henry IV. and quite out of breath by this tedious War , they resolv'd to make an end of it at any rate . How desirous the Spaniards were of the Peace may easily be conjectur'd from hence , That Albert himself propos'd the Treaty to be at the Hague , and first sent Spinola himself thither as Embassadour , whereas the Hollanders carry'd it very high , and were very resolute . The Business met with great difficulty , before it could be brought to the conclusion of a Truce of twelve Years : The greatest obstacle was , that the Hollanders urg'd it closely , That Spain without any Exception should declare them a free People , which the Spanish Embassadours refusing to do , at last this Medium was found out ; That Spain and the Archduke Albert did declare , they would treat with the Netherlanders , As a free Nation . And they being not satisfy'd also with this , the President Janin , who was sent thither in behalf of France , answer'd , That the word As could not add much to the Strength of Spain , nor diminish theirs ; and that it was their Business to secure themselves and their State by Arms and not by Words . A Truce of 12 Years , Both Parties kept what they were possess'd of , and the Hollanders maintain'd their Navigation into the East Indies , which the Spaniards would fain have got from them ; but the chief cause , why the Hollanders at that time when their Affairs were in so good a Condition , consented to a Truce , seems to be , that they began to be jealous of France , for fear , lest that King should snatch Flanders away upon a sudden , which must needs have prov'd their Ruin . Besides this , Maurice being grown very Powerfull during this War , was likely to be troublesome to their Liberty . And this was the first step which Holland made towards the Establishment of a free Common-wealth . 1609.

§ . 12. Soon after the Truce was concluded , the Hollanders were engaged in the Business concerning the Succession of the Country of Juliers ; A Quarrel about the Dutchy of Juliers . for the Emperour , after the death of the last Duke , being very desirous to annex these Countries unto his House , had sent the Archduke Leopold , to make a Sequestration , who took the strong City of Juliers , but was beaten out again by the Hollanders , with the Assistance of the French . But a difference arising afterwards betwixt the Elector of Brandenburgh and the Duke of Newburgh , who had at first made an Agreement betwixt themselves ; and the Duke of Newburgh having called to his Assistance Spinola , who took the City of Wesel : The Hollanders on the other hand sided with the Elector of Brandenburgh , and put Garrisons into Rees and Emeric , whereby the Country of Cleves was involved in the War of the Netherlands .

§ . The Differences between the Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants 13. But there arose a more dangerous intestine Division in Holland betwixt the Arminians or Remonstrants ( as they are termed ) and others ; which Division was partly occasioned by a State-jealousie , partly by Disputes among the Divines . We have said before , that Prince William did endeavour under-hand to be Soveraign over the United Provinces , which was prevented only by a very few Voices . Then after his Death his Son Maurice pursued the same Design , but was opposed by the chief Men among them ; who alledged , That their Labour was very ill bestowed , if in place of a great One , they should be brought under subjection to a little Prince . Among these , one of the chiefest was John of Olden Barneveldt , Pensionary of Holland , who had been always for upholding the publick Liberty . But because the Authority of the Captain-General was more conspicuous during the War , Afterwards manag'd by State Policy . Maurice endeavoured to set aside the Treaty with Spain ; but Barnevelt did , as much as he could , promote the Truce with Spain , knowing that in time of Peace , the Authority of the Captain-General would be diminish'd , which Maurice kept in good remembrance . In the mean time Arminius , a professour of Divinity in the University of Leyden , had defended several Propositions concerning Predestination , and some other Articles relating to the same , with less rigour than the rest of the Reform'd Churchs had hitherto generally taught . His Opinion was after his death oppos'd by one Francis Gomarus . This Dissension being spread abroad , most of the Clergy sided with Gomarus , but the chief States-men with Arminius . But because the generality of the People followed the footsteps of the Clergy , Maurice , who after the Death of his elder Brother , was become Prince of Orange , declared himself for the Gomarists . And there happening great Tumults in several places ; viz. at Alckmaer , Leyden and Vtrecht , the Prince took this opportunity to displace up and down such Magistrates as adhered to the Arminians . Barnevelt , Hugo Grotius , and some others , where , under the same pretext , taken into Custody ; the first by a Sentence of the States-General lost his Head in the 72d . Year of his Age ; Grotius was condemned to a perpetual Imprisonment ; out of which he afterwards made his escape by means of his Wife , who had enclosed him in a Chest . And tho' at the Synod of Dort the Doctrine of Arminius was condemned as erroneous , 1629. yet this Violence of the Prince against a Man , who had deserved so well , was very ill resented by a great many : And these two Factions have ever since taken so firm root there , that it is not improbable , but at last they may occasion the ruin or change of the State .

§ . The Spanish War renew'd , 1621 , 14. But Dangers from abr●ad did afterwards appease these inward Dissensions . For the time of the Truce being expired , the War began a-fresh with Spain . In the Year 1622 , Spinola took Juliers , but was obliged to raise the Siege from before Bergen op Zoom ; because the Count of Mansfeld and Christian Duke of Brunswick , having defeated the Spanish Army near Fleury , march'd to the Assistance of the Hollanders . To revenge this Affront , Spinola besieged Breda ; and Prince Maurice having in vain endeavour'd to raise the Siege ; and besides this , his Attempt upon the Castle of Antwerp having proved unsuccessfull , Prince Maurice dies , 1625. he fell into a deep Melancholy , and died , Breda being not long after forc'd by Famine to surrender it self . Prince Frederick Henry I. To Prince Maurice , succeeded in the Stadtholdership and all other Offices , which had been in his possession , his Brother Frederick Henry , 1627. who took Groll . In the Year 1628 , Pieter Heyn took the Spanish Silver-fleet ; and in the Year next following the Prince took Bois le Duc. During this Siege , the Spaniards made an Inrode into the Velaw , hoping thereby to give the Hollanders a diversion , who were put into a great Consternation . But the Hollanders on that very day surprized the City of Wesel , which oblig'd the Spaniards to repass the River Yssel as fast as they could : And from that time forwards the Spaniards despair'd of ever reducing Holland under their Obedience . In the Year 1630 , the Hollanders got first footing in Brasile . In the Year 1631 , they surprized some Thousands of Spaniards near Bergen op Zoom , who were gone out in Shallops upon some secret Enterprize . In the Year next following the Prince took Venlo , Ruremond , Limburgh and Macstricht , and Pappenheim endeavouring to relieve the last , was soundly beaten . In the Year 1638 the Prince took Rhinebergh , but in the Year next following the Spaniards , A League Offensive between France and Holland , 1635. Limburgh . An Offensive Alliance was made betwixt France and Holland , wherein they had shar'd the Netherlands betwixt them : But this Alliance prov'd fruitless , the Hollanders being very well satisfy'd , that this Design did not succeed , being glad not to have the French for their Neighbours on the Land-side : But the Spaniards surpriz'd Shenkenshantz , 1636. which the Hollanders retook not without great trouble . In the Year 1637 the Prince retook Breda , but the Spaniards , Venlo and Ruremond . In the Year 1638 , the Hollanders were bravely beaten near Callo ; but in the Year 1639 , Martin Tromp entirely destroy'd the Spanish Fleet , which lay in the Downs , and was intended to attack Sweden , in conjunction with the Danes . Prince William II. In the Year 1644 , Ghent , and in the Year next following Hulst was taken by William II. Peace concluded at Munster , 1648. who had succeeded his Father : It is thought , that he might also have taken Antwerp , if the Province of Zealand and Amsterdam had not oppos'd it , they being grown powerfull out of its Ruins . At last , a Peace was concluded at Munster , betwixt Spain and Holland , wherein it was declar'd a free Common-wealth , to which Spain should for the future make no Pretensions whatsoever . And tho' France and the Prince did oppose this Peace with their utmost Endeavours , yet the Hollanders did consider , that the Spaniards having granted all that they could desire , the Cause of the War ceas'd : They fear'd , besides this , that Spain might be brought too low , and France grow too powerfull ; and the Province of Holland was considerably indebted . Thus Holland ended this tedious War with great Reputation , but the Spaniards with great Dishonour , having besides this , quite enervated themselves . Tho' this is observable , that as long as the Hollanders were engag'd in the War against Spain , they were favour'd by every body except the Spanish Party ; but immediately after the Peace was concluded , both France and England , by whom they had been hitherto uph●ld , gave manifest proofs of their Jealousie of them .

§ . War with Portugal . 15. But the Hollanders could not enjoy Peace very long ; for soon after Brasile rebell'd against them , submitting it self to the Portuguese , which prov'd very disadvantageous for the West-India Company ; but the East-India Company drew great Advantage from it ; for this having occasion'd a War with Portugal , which lasted till the Year 1661 , the Hollanders took from the Portuguese almost all the places , which they were possess'd of in the East-Indies . Divisions in Holland . In the Year 1650 , a remarkable Dissension arose in Holland , which might have prov'd the cause of great Calamities . For the War with Spain being now at an end , some of the States , and especially the Province of Holland , were of Opinion , That to ease the Publick , their Forces should be diminish'd ; which the Prince oppos'd , under pretence , that it would not be adviseable to be without an Army , as long as France and Spain were engag'd in a War . And the Opinion being divided concerning this Business , it was agreed upon by the Majority of the States-General , who were great Friends of the Prince , that the Prince should visit in person these Cities , to try , whether he could convince the Magistrates in this point : Against this petition'd some of the Cities in Holland , and especially Amsterdam , fearing , that if the Prince should come in person to them , he might , by changing the Magistrates and other Alterations , do something which might prove prejudicial to their Liberty . The Prince being dissatisfy'd at these proceedings , reply'd , That this was done to affront him and his Office , and therefore desir'd , that Reparation should be made him ; but the Cities insisted upon their former Resolution , alledging , that it was according to their Privileges . Da Witt and others made Prisoners by the Prince . Then the Prince took into Custody six of the States of Holland , whom he suppos'd to be chiefly against him , among whom the chiefest were the Sieur the Witt , Burghermaster of Dort , whom he sent all together Prisoners to the Castle of Louvesteyn . He also privately order'd some Troops to march towards Amsterdam , to surprize that City ; but some of these Troops having lost their way in the Night-time , the Design was discover'd by the Hamburgher Post-boy : And the Amsterdamers perceiving that the Prince intended to force them to a Complyance , open'd their Sluces , and put the Country round about it under Water : At last the Business was agreed , and the Prince had this Satisfaction given him , that the Sieur Bicker Burghermaster of Amsterdam was depos'd , and the Prisoners in the Castle of Louvestein were set at liberty , under condition that they should be discharg'd from their places . But this Business was likely to have been the occasion of more troubles , if the Prince had not died soon after . The Birth of Prince William III. Soon after his death , viz. in the Year 1650 , on the 13th day of November , his Princess was brought to Bed of William III. the present Prince of Orange . In the Year 1651 , the United Provinces held a grand Assembly , where they renew'd the Union , being now destitute of a Governour .

§ . War with the English Parliament . 16. Not long after the Hollanders were engag'd in a heavy War with the English Parliament , which at the beginning being very ambitious of their Friendship , sent one Dorislaw to the Hague , who before he had his publick Audience , was murther'd by some Scots who were all mask'd . And the Parliament having receiv'd no Satisfaction upon this account , began to look with an ill Eye upon them , which they little regarded , till Cromwell had reduc'd the Scots . And , tho' the Parliament sent other Embassadours to the Hague , yet the Dutch were not very forward , but were for protracting the Treaty , till the Embassadours having been affronted by the Rabble , departed dissatisfy'd : Whereupon the Parliament gave out Reprisals against them , declaring withal , That no Merchandises should be transported into England , except in English Bottoms , and the English Privateers began to fall every where upon the Dutch Merchant-ships . The Hollanders , who were not very unanimous among themselves , did resolve at last , to try first whether the Business might be compounded by fair means , and if that did not succeed , to begin the War in good earnest , and for this purpose Embassadours were sent into England . Tromp in the mean while was sent out with a Fleet , to secure their Commerce , and meeting with the English Admiral Blake , and refusing to strike , a bloody Engagement ensu'd , which ended with equal loss on both sides . The Hollanders pretended , that this had happen'd by accident ; both Parties however made great Preparations for War , and fought twice , the Advantage remaining on the English side , notwithstanding they were beaten near L●ghorn . But in the last Engagement the Hollanders having lost their Admiral Tromp , and seven and twenty Men of War , they were oblig'd to conclude a Peace with Cromwell , A Peace ▪ 1654. which was very advantageous and glorious on his side , they being among other Articles oblig'd , for the future , never to make any one of the House of Orange their Stadtholder . It was observ'd , that the Dutch Ships were not large enough , which Error the Hollanders corrected afterwards . Differences with Swedeland . In the Year next following the Hollanders were grown jealous of the great Success of the Swedes against Poland , and being desirous to prevent the Swedes from becoming Masters of Prussia , they stirr'd up the King of Denmark against them . But the Danes having been worsted in this War , the Hollanders sent a Fleet to relieve Copenhagen , which was besieg'd by the Swedes : A bloody Battel was fought in the Oresound , betwixt the Swedish and Dutch Fleets , wherein the Hollanders lost two Admirals , but nevertheless gain'd their point in relieving of Copenhagen . And in the Year next following they also bore their share in the Battel of Funen , 1660. till at last a Peace was concluded before Copenhagen , to the small Satisfaction of the Danes , who accused the Hollanders , that they had not been zealous enough in their Assistance against the Swedes ; but the Hollanders were afraid , that England and France might declare for Sweden , and under that pretence fall upon them ; besides that , they thought it their Interest , not to let Denmark grow too powerfull .

§ . The Second War with England , 16●5 . 17. Holland was then for a few Years at Peace , till a bloody War broke out betwixt them and the English , who could not but think the flourishing Trade and great Power of the Hollanders at Sea , to be very prejudicial to them . France blew up the Coals , being desirous to see these two mighty States weaken one another's Power . In this War the English had the Advantage in the first and third Engagements , but the Hollanders in the second : But the English , at last , being willing to save Charges , did resolve only to infest the Hollanders by their Privateers , and not to equipp a Fleet , which the Hollanders taking an advantage of , ventur'd to enter the River of Thames ; and having landed near Chattam , they burn'd several Ships in the Harbour . This oblig'd England to make a Peace with them , which was by mediation of the Crown of Sweden concluded at Breda . In this War Holland recover'd its Reputation , which it had lost in Cromwell's time , and shew'd it self not to be inferiour in Strength at Sea to England ; but they discover'd their Weakness on Land , the Bishop of Munster having been very troublesome to them .

§ . England and France declare War with Holland . 18. At last , in the Year 1672 , a prodigious Storm fell upon Holland , which at first threaten'd its ruin ; France attacking it by Land , and England by Sea . It was surprising to see how the French in a few days time took the Provinces of Gueldres , Over-yssel and Vtrecht , which occasion'd so general a Consternation , that some are of Opinion , they might have taken Amsterdam it self , if they had immediately gone towards it , whilst the first Consternation lasted . Some lay the fault upon Rochford , who having receiv'd Orders to make an attempt upon that City , tarry'd two days at Vtrecht , which he bestow'd in receiving of Complements , the Amsterdamers getting thereby time to take a Resolution for their Defence . It serv'd also for a great Encouragement to the Hollanders , that the Bishop of Munster was forc'd to go away from before Groningen , he having , together with the Elector of Collen , taken the French side . In the Year next following the French took Maestricht from the Hollanders . But the Hollanders having behav'd themselves bravely in four Sea Engagements , and the Parliament of England being become very jealous of France , a separate Peace , was by the Mediation of Spain , concluded betwixt Holland and England . The Emperour and Spain having then declar'd for Holland , the French King took his Garrisons out of all the conquer'd Places , having first exacted from them great Contributions , except Naerden and Grave , which were retaken by force . Thus the Hollanders got all their places again except Maestricht ; Rhinebergh which belong'd to the Elector of Collen being restor'd to him , and the Country of Cleves to the Elector of Brandenburgh . This War also restor'd the Prince of Orange to the same Dignity , and that under better Conditions than they had been in the possession of his Ancestors . For the Common People , which already favour'd the House of Orange , being put quite into a Consternation by the prodigious Success of the French , and being persuaded , that this Misfortune was occasion'd by the Treachery of some who sat at the Helm , and that no body but the Prince could restore the decay'd State , did raise Tumults in most Cities , which the Prince was forc'd to appease , by deposing the former Magistrates , and putting in their room such as he knew were favourers of himself . In one of these Tumults Cornelius and John du Witt , The Du Witts murther'd . two Brothers , were miserably murther'd by the Rabble in the Hague ; though a great many are of Opinion , That especially the last of these , who had so long sat at the Helm , had better deserv'd of his native Country . Tho the Prince had been not a little instrumental in appeasing the Commotions , whereby Holland was put in a condition to recover it self , yet he was not so successfull in his War against France : For he receiv'd a considerable loss near Seneffe , 1674. he was repuls'd before Maestricht , and endeavouring to relieve St. 1676. Omer , he was defeated by the French ; 1677. and the Dutch Fleet which was sent to the Relief of Sicily had no great Success . At last their Fear , that through long War their Liberty might be endanger'd by the Prince , influenc'd them to make a separate Peace with France , by virtue of which Maestricht was restor'd to the Hollanders .

§ . The Constitution . 19. The Seven Provinces of the Vnited Netherlands are fill'd with a prodigious number of People , there being some , who have computed , that in the Province of Holland , the Number amounts to two millions and 500000. And unto this vast Number of People is to be attributed their Industry , increase of Trade and great Riches ; for in a Country which is not the most fruitfull , and where every thing is very dear , they must else of necessity perish by Famine : But most of the Inhabitants were transplanted thither out of other Countries ; out of France during the times of the Civil Commotions ; out of England under the Reign of Queen Mary ; out of Germany during those long Wars there ; but chiefly , out of the other Provinces of the Netherlands , at the time of their revolting from Spain . These Strangers were invited into this Country by its convenient Situation , the Liberty of Religion and the Government ; by its extraordinary Constitutions and Conveniencies for Trade and Correspondency in all Parts ; and at last , by the great Reputation which the States have gain'd abroad , by their wise Management at home , and Success of their Arms abroad . And because every body , who either brings some Means along with him , or has learn'd something to maintain himself withall , finds a good Reception in Holland ; even those who are prosecuted in other places find a certain Refuge in this Country . Their Genius . The Netherlanders are commonly very open-hearted , down-right and honest , very free in Words and Conversation , not easily to be mov'd or stirr'd up ; but if once made soundly angry , not easily to be appeas'd . If you Converse with them without Haughtiness and with Discretion , so as to accommodate your self a little to their Inclinations , you may do with them what you please . Charles V. us'd to say of them , That there was not a Nation under the Sun , that did detest more the Name of Slavery , and yet if you did manage them Mildly and with Discretion , did bear it more patiently . But the Rabble here is very bad , it being a common Custom to speak ill and despicably of their Magistrates , as often as things do not answer Expectation . The Hollanders are very unfit for Land-service , and the Dutch Horse-men are strange Creatures , yet those who live in Gueldres , and upon the Borders of Westphalia , are tolerably good . But at Sea they have done such Exploits that they may be compar'd with any Nation in the World . And the Zealanders are esteem'd more Hardy and Venturous than the Hollanders . They are also generally very parsimonious , not much addicted to the Belly , it being not the Custom here to spend their yearly Income , but to save every Year an overplus . This saving way of living upholds their Credit , and enables them to bear such heavy Taxes without being ruin'd by them . They are very fit for all sorts of Manufactury , and very much addicted to Commerce , not refusing to undergo any Labour or Danger , where something is to be got , and those that understand Trade deal very easily with them . They are very punctual in every respect , pondering and ordering a thing very well before they begin it . And there is scarce any Nation in the World so fit for Trade as the Dutch , this being very praise-worthy in them , that they always choose rather to get somewhat by their own Industry , than by Violence or Fraud . But especially , the greatest Liberty which they enjoy , is a great Encouragement for Trade . The chiefest Vice among them is Covetousness , which however is not so pernicious among them , because it produces in them Industry and good Husbandry . There is a great many who have been amaz'd at the great Conduct which has appear'd in the management of their Affairs , notwithstanding that the Hollanders in general are rarely of extraordinary Wit or Merits : Some alledge this for a Reason , That a cold Temper and Moderation of Passions are the fundamental Qualifications of such as intend to manage State Affairs .

§ . The Nature of 〈◊〉 Country . 20. The Seven Vnited Provinces are not very large in Extent , they being to be reckon'd but for one Corner of Germany ; but they are fill'd up with so considerable a Number of beautifull , large and populous Cities , that no other place of the same bigness is to be compar'd to it . Besides the Seven Provinces , they are possess'd of some Cities in Flanders and Brabant , viz. Hulst , Sluce , Ardenburgh , Bois le Duc , Maestricht , Breda , Bergen op Zoom , Grave , and some others . They also keep a Garrison in Embden , thereby to secure the River of Embs. The Country in general is more fit for Pasture than Tilling , it producing scarce so much Corn as is sufficient for the fifth part of its Inhabitants . But this want is made up by the Industry of the Inhabitants , and the great conveniency of so many Rivers and the Seas , fit for Fishing and Navigation . The Herring Fishery and that of Codds brings in vast Riches to them ; and some English have computed , That the Hollanders sell every Year 79200 Lasts ( which makes 138400 Tuns ) of Herrings , which amount to the value of 1372000 l. not including what is transported into Spain , Italy and France , and what is consum'd at home . Of their Shipping and Commerce . But their Shipping and Commerce is of much greater Advantage to them , which does flourish there to that degree , that some are of Opinion , That in Holland are more Ships than in all other parts of Europe . Besides , Holland's Situation in the midst of Europe makes it very fit for Trade , so that it sends its Ships with great Conveniency into the East and Western Seas ; and though the Commodiousness of those vast Rivers of the Rhine , Meuse , Elbe , Weser , and Embs , draw the Commodities out of Germany , and in exchange for these vends its Manufacturies there : For Holland has in regard , especially of the Rhine and the Meuse , a great Advantage in its Trade before England , tho' this on the other hand , has better Harbours and a deeper Coast : And because Holland is at the latter end of the Year commonly overflown with Waters , which makes the Air very thick and foggy , Nature has been kind to this Country , in that about that time the Wind blows much Easterly , which disperses the Vapours , refreshes the Air , and renders it wholsome ; but from hence it is that their Harbours are often shut up with Ice for three Months together , whereas they are always open in England . The Hollanders trade almost into every Corner of the World , they having been very carefull to erect Fortresses and Colonies in far distant Countries . But the East-India Company , East-India Company . especially , has vastly encreas'd her Trade and Riches ; for this Company has extended her Trade from Basora , which is situated near the great Bay of Persia , at the very Mouth of the River Tigris , all along a prodigious Tract of rich Ground near the Sea side as far as to the utmost parts of Japan ; she stands there in Confederacy with many Kings , and with many of them has made Treaties of Monopolies , and is possess'd of a great many strong Holds in those parts . The Capital City there is Batavia , in Java Major , where the Governour General keeps a Court like a King , under whose Jurisdiction are the other places . The Company is Sovereign Mistress over all these Countries , the chiefest of which are the Isles of Molucca and Banda , Amboina , Malacca , the Coast of the Island of Zeilon , Patiacatta , Musulapatan , Negapatan upon the Coast of Cormandel , Cochin , Cananor and Cranganor upon the Coast of Malabar , and several more ; whether they have a free Trade in the East-Indies with China , I cannot affirm , tho' it is certain that the Chineses drive a great Trade with them in Batavia ; but in Japan they have the whole Trade alone , no Portuguese being permitted to come there . This Company is able to set out a Fleet of betwixt 40 and 50 Capital Ships , and to raise an Army of 30000 Men. The first Funds of this Company did amount to sixty Tuns of Gold , which in the space of six Years , deducting all the Charges and Dividends made to the Owners , was encreas'd to three hundred Tuns of Gold . The Funds of the West-Indi● Company was of fourscore Tuns of Gold , The West-India Company . and flour●sh'd extreamly at the beginning , but ruin'd it self by making too great Dividends , and not keeping a Fund sufficient for the carrying on of the War against Spain . Besides , those concern'd in this Company were more eager after Conquests than Trade , and when Brasile revolted they receiv'd a capital blow : Yet they are possess'd in Gumea , of the Castle de Mina ; and if I am not mistaken of Loanda in Angola , and some other places , as also some of the Caribby Islands , and of New Holland , in the Northern parts of America . They have also lately begun to erect some Colonies in Guiana , and on the great River of Orenoque . Some of the most curious have observ'd , that a great many things concurr in Holland for the promoting of Trade , which are not to be met withall all at once in any other Country : As for example , the great quantity of People , the Conveniency and Security of the Country , the small Interest which is paid for Money , which shews the great Superfluity of ready Money ; the Severity us'd against Thieves , Cheats , and Banquerooteers ; the Bank of Amsterdam , great number of Convoys , and moderate Customs , that they are so exact and regular in their way of Trading , that the Magistrates are generally Merchants , or at least , such as have an Interest in Commerce ; That they are Masters in the East-Indies , and that by reason of the Frugality and Industry of the Inhabitants , far more Commodities are exported than imported . And it is observable , that tho' the Hollanders are Masters of the Spice in the Indies , yet they use them least of all themselves . They have also the greatest share in the Silk-trade in Persia , and yet they cloath themselves in Woollen Cloath , generally speaking . Nay , they sell their fine Cloaths abroad , and send for courser out of England for their own use . They sell their delicious Butter , and send for other out of the North of England and Ireland for their use . French Wines and Brandies are the chiefest Commodities which are consumed here , yet even when they make a Debauch , they are not overlavishing .

§ . Strength and Weakness of this Common-wealth . 21. From what has been said , it is manifest that the Strength of this Common-wealth is founded upon Trade and its Naval Force , which is absolutely necessary to maintain the former ; nor is there any Country so stock'd with good Seamen , for the setting out of a great Fleet. But on the Land-side , where the Country cannot be under Water , it is not near so strong . For tho' they do not want Money to raise an Army of Foreigners , yet is it not always adviseable , for a Common-wealth to rely only upon such as have no other tye but their Pay , since they may easily prove unfaithfull , or else , mis-led by the General , assist him in over-turning the Liberty of the State . And it has been in regard of this that some have advised , that the Provinces of Holland and Zealand should separate themselves from the rest , and only endeavour to strengthen themselves betwixt the Meuse , the Rhine , and South-sea ; and in case of Necessity , by opening of their Sluces , put the Country under-water ; but for the rest , only endeavour to strengthen themselves at Sea : But to examine this Proposition , is not now my business . There are several Inconveniences that proceed from the very Form of the Government of this State . For , to speak properly , these seven Provinces do not make up one entire Common-wealth , but there are seven Common wealths , Form of Government . which by the Union at Vtrecht are joined into one Confederacy ; they have their Deputies constantly residing at the Hague , whose business it is to take care of such Affairs as concern the whole Union ; and if any thing of moment is to be decreed , they send to the several Provinces , and according to the Approbation of these they make their Decrees : these Deputies are called the States-General . Nay , it seems that each Province is rather a Confederacy , than one City or Common-wealth , because the several Members of each Province do treat with one another like Confederates , and not like one Body , where one is superiour to the other , or the majority of Votes determines a business . For even in the Provincial Assemblies a great many things cannot be determined by the Plurality of Votes , but every Member's consent is required . Which shows , that these Provinces and Cities not united by so strong a Tye , as those who are govern'd by one Soveraign , except as far as Necessity obliges them to keep together . And the great Cities are fill'd with Rabble ; which if once put in motion , uses to make strange work among them . It is therefore the great Care of the Magistrates , that they are kept in constant Employment to get Bread , for Famine would quickly be the occasion of great Tumults here . There is also a Jealousie betwixt Holland and the other Provinces ; the latter pretending to some Prerogative , as being the most Powerfull , and contributing most to the Publick ; whereas the others are for maintaining their Liberty and Equality . All the rest of the Cities are especially jealous of Amsterdam , because this City draws abundance of Trade from the rest , and puts them in apprehension , as if She were ambitious to domineer over them . But the greatest Irregularity happens in their Constitution , by means of the Prince of Orange , Prince of Orange . who having the Favour of the Common people , of the Land-Souldiers and the Clergy ( for the Clergy hate the Arminians , who being of the Barnefelt Faction , are Enemies of the Prince ) seems to endanger their Liberty . Wherefore the chief Men in the Cities , to whom belongs the Magistracy there , possess their places in continual fear , except they will be pliable to the Prince of Orange ; Whose interest is also inconsistent with that of the State , because no Land way can be advantageous for Holland ; whereas in time of War , his Authority is much greater than otherwise . And therefore according to this Form of the Government , scarce a firm Peace can be establish'd at home . It may easily happen that the Prince may aspire to be their Soveraign . 1675. And when the Province of Gueldres did offer to him the Soveraignty , he did give them to understand , That if all the rest were of the same Opinion , they should have no occasion to look for him behind the Wine-pipes , as the Jews did for Saul ; yet the wiser sort are of opinion , that he would reap no great benefit from this Soveraignty , since it would be scarce possible to keep so many great Cities in Obedience against their Will. For Cittadels and Garrisons would prove the Ruin of Trade , which never flourishes where absolute Power controuls the Subject . Wherefore it seems more adviseable for the Prince to be satisfied with what Power he has , it being certain , that if he knows how to manage the Humour of the People , he is almost able to do what he pleases . Whether it is their advantage to have a Soveraignty . It has been a great Dispute , whether it be for the advantage of these Netherlands , to have a Governour General . Those who are for the Affirmative , alledge , That this Country having been from ancient Time under the Jurisdiction of a limited Soveraignty , has been used to that Form of Government ; That it conduces to the outward Splendour of the Common-wealth , and to uphold the Authority of the Magistrates in the Cities ; That thereby Factions and Tumults are kept under and suppressed . That thereby are prevented a great many Inconveniences in executing any designs of moment , which were incident to an Aristocratical and Democratical State ; viz. Slow and divided Counsels in Consultations , delays in Executions , and the divulging of secret Designs ; all which we will leave undetermin'd here . This is also to be esteemed one of the Weaknesses of this Common-wealth , that so great a number of Inhabitants cannot be maintained by the Product of the Land , but must get their Bread from abroad , and by the help of Foreigners . Wherefore the certain Ruin of this Common-wealth is at hand , Other Defects of this Common-wealth . when-ever its Trade and Navigation should be stopt ; which however is not altogether impossible to happen . The difference of Religion is commonly reckoned among the weaknesses of a State . But some make this one of the main Pillars of the flourishing Condition of Holland , because it contributes greatly to the Strength and Encrease of this State . The Reformed Religion is here the Establish'd Religion , all the rest being only tolerated : The Papists are connived at , but also they keep over them a strict Eye , for fear the Priests , who all depend on the Pope , should enter into a Correspondency with Spain . Yet it is rarely seen in Holland , that one Subject hates the other , or prosecutes him upon the Score of Religion . It has been the Saying of some , that in other Countries Religion doth more good , but in Holland less harm . It is also very inconvenient for the Inhabitants , that all sorts of Victuals are sold at so excessive a Rate : The reason of which is , That the greatest Revenues of Holland , are raised by way of Excise upon these Commodities ; and it is a common Saying , That before you can get a Dish of Fish ready dress'd upon your Table at Amsterdam , you have paid above Thirty several Taxes for it . And notwithstanding all these heavy Impositions , the State is much in debt . There are some also who pretend , that the Traffick of the Dutch does grow less and less ; for which they alledge several Reasons ; viz. That since the Peace concluded at Munster , other Nations have also applied themselves to Trade . That the Price of the East-India Commodities does fall every Year , and yet the Charges of the Company increases daily . For whereas formerly five or six East-India Ships coming home yearly , were reckon'd very considerable , now eighteen or twenty do return ; which so over-stocks them with these Commodities , that they are obliged to lay them up in their Ware-houses for a considerable time , before they can vent them without Loss . They alledge allso , that Corn has been of late years so abundant in France , Spain , Italy and England , that the Hollanders have not sent much of it into these Parts , it being their custom to fetch Corn from off the East-Sea , where they vent , in exchange of it , most or their Spices : That the great Addition of Fortifications and sumptuous Buildings to the City of Amsterdam , have taken up a great quantity of Ready-money , which might have been better employed in way of Trade ; and that Luxury and Debauchery does encrease daily in that City . But the Reason why the Hollanders had such ill Success at the beginning of this War , seems to be , that by the great Eagerness of Gain and Trade , their Martial Heat was almost extinguish'd ; and that after the Peace concluded at Munster , they being not apprehensive of any Invasion by Land , they only applied themselves to strengthen their Power at Sea ; and having dismissed their best Officers , they had supplied their place with their own Relations ; whose Motto was , 1665. Peace and a good Government . For at the time of the War with England they had dismissed the Old English Bands ; and in the Year 1668 , the French Troops , both which were the flower of their Armies , which of necessity must have been reduced into a very ill condition , since the Prince of Orange had no more concern with them . Besides this , they thought themselves very secure , not imagining that France would either dare , or be able to attempt a Conquest over them , as long as they were sure , that the Emperour and Spain would side with them ; neither did they imagine that the English would join with the French against them . And at last they hoped , they would beat the English out of the Sea , before France should be able to take three or four Places . They relied upon the old Way of making of War , when a whole Company was taken up with the Taking of one Place , and when whole Books were composed of the Taking of Groll , or the Sar of Ghent . It is also believed , that some of the Hollanders were not sorry , that they had no great Success by Land , hoping thereby to bring into discredit the Conduct , and to diminish the Authority of the Prince , whom they had been obliged to make their Captain-General against their Will.

§. The Neighbours of Holland . 22. As for the Neighbours of Holland , and what it has to fear or to hope from them ; it seems that the English are the most dangerous Neighbours to the Hollanders , they being the only Nation that have been formidable to them hitherto , against their Pretensions to the Dominion of the Seas and Trade ; who are extreamly dissatisfied , that this new Common-wealth , which , when it was in a very tottering condition , was strongly upheld by them , has now been before-hand with them in the East-Indies , and daily spoil their Markets almost every-where . For , because an English-man is naturally proud , England . and loves to live well ; whereas a Hollander minds nothing so much as his Gain , being satisfied with an indifferent share , nor spends any thing idly ; a Hollander can sell cheaper than an English-man , and Strangers will always rather deal with the first than the last . It is therefore in all probability the chief Interest of Holland , not to irritate England , and rather to allow them some Ceremonial Prerogatives at Sea , such as striking , and the like ; but withall to strengthen their Power at Sea , that , in case England should really contest with them for the Trade and Fishing , it may be able to make head against them . The Hollanders must also , as much as is possible , endeavour to encourage the same sort of Manufacture , as is in England , and either to make these Commodities better , or at least to sell them cheaper , thereby to get the advantage from them . The Hollanders ought to stand in great fear of France on the Land-side , France . especially since that King is their great Enemy , having opposed for a considerable time all their Designs . It is therefore very necessary to be in a good posture on the Land-side , and to keep fair with the Princes of Germany , who else would permit the French to march through their Territories , or else perhaps join with him . They must endeavour the Preservation of the Spanish Netherlands , which they ought to consider as their Frontiers , and whereby Spain is obliged always to Side with Holland against France . They must take care to be provided with good Officers , and to put the Province of Holland into a better Posture of Defence on the side of Gueldres . It is not easie to be supposed , that England and France will join again against Holland , which may be prevented by the Hollanders . It is also the Interest of Holland to take care , that the Naval Strength of France do not increase too much , and to prevent , as much as in them lies , that they do not settle a Trade in the East-Indies . And because France draws the Riches of all Europe to it self by its Manufacturies , the Hollanders must try to imitate them , and furnish other Nations with the like . Spain . From Spain , Holland need fear nothing either by Sea or Land , since that time , that this Kingdom has lost all its labour against them . Nay , it is their Common Interest now that they cultivate a mutual good Understanding , to stop the Progresses of the French in the Netherlands : And the Spaniards have scarce any thing left them , from which the Dutch could have any prospect of Benefit , they being not in a Capacity to conquer or to maintain the West-Indies . And though the Hollanders may be very troublesome to the Spanish Silver Fleets , yet the Spanish Privateers may also do them considerable mischief . Portugal has no Pretensions against Holland , Portugal . and it ought most to stand in fear of the Hollanders , because these would be glad of an opportunity to take from the Portuguese Brosile , and what they have left in the East-Indies , which however they would not so easily be able to execute ; because the Hollanders are obliged to fetch their Bread out of the East-Sea ; they have always taken care that neither of the Northern Kings should be Master alone of the East-Sea ; The Northern Crowns . which Balance is the easier kept now , since the Sound is divided betwixt Sweden and Denmark . And it is notorious enough what Game they have play'd with these two Kings . For the rest , it is the general Interest of Holland , to keep fair with all other Princes , thereby to maintain a free Commerce every-where . And in these Places where they cannot Trade alone , it is the Interest of the Hollanders either by goodness or cheapness of their Commodities , and an easie Deportment to endeavour to draw the chief Benefit of Trade to themselves . For this is the easier and less odious Way to heap up Riches , than if they should attempt publickly to mix the Foreign Trade of all other Nations ; since it would prove impossible for them alone to maintain a general Monopoly .

CHAP. VII . Of the SWITZERS .

§ . 1. First Original of this Common●ealt● . THese Countries which are possess'd now by the Switzers belonged formerly to the German Empire ; but that they were united in one Commonwealth was occasioned thus ; the three small Counties of Vry , Switz , and Vnder-Walden , which commonly are call'd the three Forest Towns , enjoy'd very antient Privileges , which they pretended to have been granted them by the Emperor Lewis , Surnamed the Pious , yet so , that the Emperor used to send thither an Imperial Judge or Vicar , who had the supreme Jurisdiction in criminal Affairs . There were also some Monasteries in those Countries which , tho they enjoy'd particular Privileges , yet did they not interfere with their Liberty of the People . But there lived a great many Noblemen among them also , who by degrees getting the ascendant over the Common People , did oppress their Liberty , especially during the diffe●ences which were betwixt the Emperors and the Popes , when the Nobility us'd to side with the Popes , but the Commonalty with the Emperor . These divisions betwixt the Nobility and the People grew very high at the time of the great Interregnum , which happen'd after the death of the Emperor Frederick the Second , which breaking out into an open War , the whole Nobility was driven out of the Counrry ; but by the Emperor Rodolfus's Authority , a reconciliation having been made betwixt them , the Nobles were restored to their Estates . Thus these Countries did enjoy their former Liberty , till the Reign of Albert I. who having conceived a hatred against them , because they had sided with his Rival Adolph of Nassaw , was very desirous to annex them to his Hereditary Countries ; the Monasteries therefore , and a great many of the Nobility , having , upon his desire , submitted themselves to the Jurisdiction of the House of Austria : The same was also proposed to the three above-mentioned places , who refusing his proposition , he set over them Imperial Judges or Vicars , who , contrary to the antient Custom , began to reside in strong Castles , and having first try'd by perswasions to bring them over to the House of Austria , afterwards , when they found their labour lost that way , grew very burthensom to the People by their oppressions ; neither were the Petitions made against them by the Commonalty in any ways regarded by the Emperor ; nay the Judge of Vnder-Walden , who 's name was Geisler , was become so extravagant , that he set his Hat upon a Pole in the Market-Place of Altorf , commanding that every body should pay the same respect to his Hat as to himself ; thereby to make a tryal of their Obedience . And among others one William Tell having often pass'd by without paying his Respect , he forced him to shoot with an Arrow through an Apple , which was pla●ed upon his own Sons Head ; but this man whilst he was carrying to prison , making his escape , stirr'd up the hatred of the People against the Judges .

§ 2. Th● first Vn●on of he Switz There were at that time three Men of great Authority among them , viz. Werner Stouffacher , born in Switz , Walter Furst born in Vry , and Arnold of Melchtale born in Vnder-Walden : These entred into an Association , whereby it was agreed among them , to rid themselves of this Tyranny , and to restore their antient Liberty . A great many more having entred afterwards into this Association an agreement was made betwixt them ; that in the year 1308. on the first day of January , they would surprize these Judges in their strong Castles , and drive them out of the Country . This Confederacy was made in the year 1307. on the 17. of October ; and having afterwards been put in execution in the abovementioned year , on the first day of January , these three places entred into a Confederacy for ten years for the mutual Defence of their antient Liberties . In the year 1315. Leopald Arch-Duke of Austria , Son of Albert I. marched with an Army of 20000 Men to force them to Obedience ; against whom they marched out with 1300 men , and whilst the Austrian Forces were marching betwixt the Lane and inaccessible mountains , some of the Switzers by rowling down upon them , and throwing great heaps of stones among them , put the Enemy in confusion , whilst the rest fell upon them and entirely defeated them near Morgarten . Then these three places renewed their Confederacy , The B●●●el near Morgarten . and having confirmed it by solemn Oaths , they agreed it should continue for ever . This was done at Brun , in the year 1320. on the 7 th . of December . And this is the first beginning of that Commonwealth , whose Confederates us'd to call themselves Edytsgenossen ( which signifies Ally'd by Oath ) but strangers call them in general Switzers , from that one place called Switz .

§ 3. To fi●st design of this Confederacy . Nevertheless the first intention of this Confederacy was not to separate themselves from the German Empire , but only to maintain their antient Privileges ; tho by degrees they began to Administer their own Affairs at home without sending their Deputies to the Dyets of the Empire : and the Switzers were not till in the year 1648. viz in the Westphalian Peace declared quite Independent from the Roman Empire ; for the Emperor Lewis IV. had confirmed the former Confederacy , and in 1320. had sent them a new Imperial Vicar or Judge , unto whom , after having received new assurances to be maintained in their Privileges , they did Homage , in the name of the Emperor . But the following Emperors gave them full power to choose Judges among themselves , granting them the supreme Jurisdiction both in Civil and Criminal Affairs . In the year 1332. Lucern , and in the year 1351. Zurick entred into this Confederacy . Lucern was formerly under the Jurisdiction of the House of Austria . Zurick , which is the chiefest of the Confederacy , was formerly a free Imperial City . Immediately after Glaris , and in the year 1352. Zug and Bern were United with the former . The Switzers after this time had great Wars with the House of Austria , and in 1386 slew Leopold Arch-Duke of Austria , Battel near Sempach ▪ with a great many ▪ Nobles , in the battel near Sempach . In the year 1444. the Switzers did give another proof of their Valour ; for the Dauphin of France , afterward , call'd Lewis XI . marching with a great Army to disturb the Council then held at Basil , was attack'd by 1900 Switzers with such fury , that tho they all fell in the enterprize , yet did they strike such a terror into the French , that they quickly retreated homewards .

§ 4. Wars wi●h Charles Duk● of Burgundy . In the year 1476 the Switzers were engaged in a war against Charles Duke of Burgundy , who was stirr'd up by Lewis XI . who was for setting the Duke at work . Against him Rene Duke of Lorain , and the Bishops of Strasburgh , and Basil , made an Alliance with the Switzers : The Emperor Frederick III. also being desirous to revenge the quarrel of his House , commanded them to fall upon the Duke of Burgundy , who then was an Enemy of the Empire . And having afterwards made a Peace with the Duke without including the Switzers , he hop'd they would be severely chastized by this brave Prince ; but things happen'd quite contrary to his expectation ; for the Switzers defeated the Duke in three great Battels ; the first near Granson , afterwards near Murten , where the Duke had an Army of one hundred thousand Men , and at last near Nancy in Lorain , where the Duke himself was killed . By these Victories the Switzers gained great Reputation . In the year 1481. Fribourgh and Solothurn ; in the year 1501. Basil and Shafshausen , and last of all Appen-Zell were united with this Confederacy . The whole body then of the Swisse Confederacy is composed of 13 Common-wealths , which they call Places ; but the Italians and French call them Cantons ; Their All●es among these Zuric , Bern , Lucern , Zug , Basil , Fribourgh , Selothum , and Shafshausen , are Cities ; Vry , Switz , Vnderwalden , Glariss and Appen-Zell , are Countries , where are a good number of Towns and Villages to be met withal . The Switzers have also some other Confederates , viz. the Abby and City of S. Gall , the Grisons , the Vallesins , the Cities of Rotweil , Munthusen , Bienne , the Biel , Geneva , and Newburgh on the Lake : There are also among them several Cities and some Counties , which are either subject to the whole Confederacy or to some particular Commonwealths .

§ 5. Some o●her Wars of th● Switzers The Switzers were also obliged to fight against the Emperor Maximilian I. for their Liberty ; he having stirr'd up the Swabian League against them , 1499. hoping by this way to chastise them . But the Switzers for the most part got the better of their Enemies , till through the mediation of Lewis Duke of Milan a peace was made betwixt them . Not to relate here some intestine Commotions among them , scarce worth mentioning , they have done great Actions abroad , under the Conduct of other Nations , and more especially under the French : For Lewis XI . having , whilst he was Dauphin , sufficiently tryed their Valour in the engagement near Basil , sought by all ways after he was King , to make use of the Switz in his Wars ; wherefore he allowed them a certain yearly Pension : And his Son Charles VIII . made use of the Switzers with good success in his Expedition against Naples ; for the Italians , when they saw the Switzers make such a prodigious havock among them by the help of their Battel-Axes and large Back-Swords ; they were so surprized at it , that they counted the former Wars but like Childrens play in comparison of this , and look'd upon the Switzers more like some Monsters than Soldiers . Lewis XII . also employ'd the Switzers in his Service in his Italian Wars , tho they lost great part of their Reputation there . For these Switzers which were listed in the Service of Lewis Menis Duke of Milan , refusing to fight against their Countrymen that were in the French Army , thereby betray'd this Prince into the hands of the French .

§ 6. But in the year 1510. Th●ir Wars with France the Switzers left the French Service ; for the time of agreement with France being expired , they demanded a larger Pension , and which Lewis XII . refused to pay them , thinking it unbecoming the grandeur of a King to be imposed upon by these Highland Peasants ( as he used to call them ) he having therefore dismissed them , took into his Service some of the Grisons and Germans in their stead . But this proved very disadvantageous to France ; for they listed themselves under Pope Julius II. and did great Service against France . They attack'd the French who were much more numerous , 1513. with such fury , near Novara , that after a bloody Fight they not only routed them , but also quite beat them out of Italy . Afterwards they fell into Burgundy and besieged the City of Dijon , where the Duke of Tremoville was obliged to make a very dishonorable agreement with them , and was glad to send them home with fair promises of great sums of Money ; and if he had not stop'd their progress they would certainly have put France into the utmost danger , the King of England being at the same time faln into France on the other side . The Switzers attack'd Francis I. 1515 in his Camp near Marignano ; the fight lasted two days , and after a great deal of bloodshed on both sides the Switzers retired in good order . Wherefore Francis I. in the year next following gained their Friendship by a great sum of Money , whose example the succeeding Kings have followed ever since . Their antient Reputation is much diminished of late years , partly because they are not altogether so furious now , partly because other Nations have found out a way to bring their Infantry into a better condition . And besides this , those great Back-Swords which the Switz used to handle with so much dexterity by the extraordinary strength of their Arms , are quite out of use in Europe .

§ 7. As to the qualifications of these Countries , The 〈◊〉 of the Soil . which are Inhabited by the Switzers , they are very different ; for in the mountainous parts scarce any thing else but Pasture Grounds are to be met withal ; but tho the Valley and flat Country produce Corn and Wine in considerable quantities , yet among so vast a number of Inhabitants there appears no great plenty here , since Foreign Commodities cannot be imported without great difficulty , and what is deficient in the native Soil , is not repaired by Traffick and Manufactories . 'T is therefore accounted a common calamity among the Switzers if once in some years the Plague does not come among them , to rid them of so many superfluous Mouths . Yet they enjoy this benefit by the situation of their Country , that , by reason of the high Mountains and narrow Passages , it is almost inaccessible , especially on the Italian side , and in the midst of the Country ; for some of the outward parts are of a very easie aocess .

§ 8. The Gen●ns of this N●tion . The Switzers pretend to be downright honest and true to their word ; and indeed , they are generally Simple and Plain-Dealing , without any great Cunning or By-Designs ; but they are couragious and soon provoked to wrath . They are steadfast in their Resolutions , from whence they dont easily recede ; their valour , constancy , talness and strength of Body , has so recommended them to a great many Princes , that they choose their Guards among them ; and the King of France maintains a considerable number of Switz Foot Souldiers . They are very forward to fight , but not to undergo any other hardship or labour ; they expect to have duely their pay , if that fail , they return home as fast as they can ; from whence comes the Proverb , No Money no Swisse . They do not love to bear hunger or hardship in other Countries , because they have enough of that at home . It is one of the Articles of Agreement made with France , that that Crown shall never have less than 6000 at a time in pay , and that these are not to be separated : That in case these Articles should not be perform'd , they may be in capacity to assist one another : They also never will be imploy'd in any Sea service .

§ 9. Their strength and weakness The main strength of this Confederate Commonwealth consists in the number of its Inhabitants : For in the City of Bern , which has the greatest Territories , pretends alone to be able to send into the Field 100000 fighting Men. And it is not to be questioned , but that , if they had been ambitious of making Conquests , at that time when their Glory was at the highest pitch , or had not wanted Conduct , they might easily have brought under their Subjection the Franche Comte , and a great part of Lombardy ; but the reason why they did not aim at Conquests was partly their Inclination , which did not prompt them to encroach upon their Neighbou●s ; partly the constitution of their Government , which seems to be unfit for great and suddain Enterprises : For each Canton by itself considered is a Democracy , the highest Power being lodged in the Guildes ; and it is certain , that such as are of little Understanding and Experience , are always very positive in their opinions , and suspicious of all mankind . And the whole Confederacy is altogether adapted for their common Defence , and for the maintaining of a firm Union betwixt themselves . The difference of Religion is also a main obstacle among them , some of them being Roman Catholicks , but most Protestants , and both Parties great Zealots in their Religion : Wherefore it seems a hard task to make them all truly unanimous , except forc'd by the necessity of a common Danger . And in this Democratical Government it is not to be supposed , that one man can have sufficient Authority to sway the rest , and to stir them up to any great and sudden Enterprise . And this slowness of their publick Counsels is such a check upon their natural Valour at home , that they can employ it no better than to sell it for a little money to other Nations .

§ 10. Their neighbours . This is the very reason why the Switzers are the best Neighbours in the World ; as being never to be feared , and always ready to assist you in case of necessity , if you pay them for it . On the other hand , they need not stand in great fear of their Neighbours . The States of Italy are not in a capacity to do them any harm , and Germany is not willing to hurt them . If the House of Austria should attack them , they are able to defend themselves , and besides this , they may in such a case be sure to be back'd by France . France alone seems to be their most dangerous Neighbour ; and it has been the wonder of many , why the Switzers rely altogether upon the French Alliance and Promises , and do not in the least endeavour to secure their Country against the growing Power of France ; and that in the last war they left the Franche Comtè to the mercy of the French , which opens the Passage into their Country , and enables the French to levy Souldiers on their Frontiers at pleasure . It seems therefore to be the present Interest of Switzerland , not to imitate the French , and nevertheless to take care , that they do not make themselves Masters of their Frontier Places , viz. of Geneva , Newburgh on the Lake , the Four Forest Towns , and Constance . That they do not send too great a number of their Men into the French Service , whereby they may exhaust their own Stock of Souldiers ; and that such as are sent into the French Service , may be engaged not to be forgetful of their Duty to their native Country , so as to be ready to return home in case of necessity . On the other hand , France seems to have no great reason to attack the Switzers , as long as they are quiet and do not pretend to oppose the French Designs ; it being evident , that if France had once obtained its aim , the Switzers would be obliged to submit themselves . And it seems at this time more Advantageous for the French to make use of the Switzers as their Allies , than by conquering them , to make them refractory Subjects , who , by reason of their natural stubborness , must be bridled by strong Garisons , which would scarce be maintained out of the Revenues of so poor a Country .

CHAP. VIII . Of the GERMAN Empire .

§ 1. Te antient condition of Germany . GErmany was not antiently one Common-wealth , but divided into a great many States , and independent of each other , most of them being Democracies : And tho some of them had their Kings , yet these had more Authority to Advise than to Command . These several States were at last united under the Government of the Francks : The Kings of the Merovingean Family having undertaken several Expeditions into Germany , did reduce several of these States under their Subjection : And Charles the Great reduced all Germany under his Jurisdiction , Charles t●e Great . he being at the same time Master of France , Italy , Rome , and a part of Spain ; all which Provinces he committed to the care of certain Governours , who were called Graves or Marc-Graves . The Saxons retained more of their antient Liberty than the rest ; wherefore the better to keep this , then barbarous Nation in obedience , he erected several Episcopal Sees in Saxony , hoping , by the influence of the Christian Doctrine , to civilize this barbarous People . Lewis the Pious . Lewis , Surnamed the Pious , Son of Charles the Great , had three Sons , viz. Lotharius , Lewis , and Charles , who divided the Empire of the Francks among them . In this Division Lewis got for his share all Germany , as far as it extends on this side of the Rhine , and also some Countries on the other side of that River , by reason of the Vineyards , as 't is said , which are on both sides . Lewis K. of German● . All which he was possess'd of as Sovereign , without being in any ways dependent on his elder Brother , much less the younger , who had France for his share : And at that time Germany was first made a Kingdom independent of any other .

§ 2. Carolomannus , the Son of this Lewis , did , after the death of Charles the Bald , who was King of France , and had born the Title of Roman Emperour , Conquer Italy , and took upon him the Imperial Dignity , notwithstanding that Lewis , Son of Charles the Bald and King of France , had , upon instigation of the Pope , assumed the same Title . After him succeeded his younger Brother Carolus Crassus , C. Crassus . who maintained both the Kingdom of Italy and the Imperial Title . 8●7 . But the great Men in Germany having deposed the said Charles , they made Arnolph , the Son of the abovementioned Carolomannus , King of Germany , 894. who went into Italy and took upon him the Title of Roman Emperour , for which had contended for a good while Berengarius Duke of Trioul , 899. and Guido Duke of Spoleto . But after the death of Arnulph , Lewis the Child . his Son Lewis , Surnamed the Child , obtained the Crown of Germany , under whose Reign the Affairs of Germany were in so ill a condition , that he had no leisure to look into those of Italy : For Arnulph had called to his assistance the Hungarians against Zwentepold , King of Bohemia and Moravia , who had Rebell'd against him , with whose assistance he reduced Zwentepold to obedience ; but the Hungarians , who were at that time a most barbarous Nation , having got a tast of Germany , made an inroad into that Country , ravaging every where with an inhuman Cruelty . They also defeated Lewis near Augsburgh , 9●5 . obliging him to pay them a yearly Tribute ; notwithstanding which , they ravag'd and plundered wherever they came . This overthrow was chiefly occasioned by the Kings tender Age , and the Divisions of the great Men among themselves , who aimed at nothing more than to establish their own Authority . 9●1 . After the death of Lewis , Cunrad . Cunrad , Duke of Franconia , was elected King Germany , under whose Reign the Potent Dukes of Lorain , Swabia , Bavaria , and Saxony , did prete●d to maintain the Sovereignty over their own Countries , and a Hereditary Possession ; which Cunrad was not able to prevent ; and because Henry Duke of Saxony was the most Potent , and Cunrad feared , that at last he might quite withdraw himself from the German Empire , he upon his Death-bed advised the rest of the Princes of Germany to make him their King , which was done accordingly . And thus the Empire was transferred from the Carolingian Family to the Saxons .

§ 3. Henry the Faulconer . Henry Surnamed the Birdcatcher , did bridle the Fury of the Hungarians : For they having made a great inroad into Germany , and demanded the Yearly Tribute from him , he sent them a Mungeril-Dog , and afterwards Defeated them in a bloody Battle near Merseburgh , where he slew 80000 of them . Under the Reign of this King , the greatest part of the Cities which are situated on the sides of the Rhine . were either Built , or else Fortified with Walls . This Henry , also did Conquer the Serbes and Wendes , a Sarmatick or Sclavonian Nation , who being possessed of a large Tract of Land in Germany , on the River Elbe , he drove out of Misnia , Lusatia and the Marquisate of Brandenburgh . After he had re-established the Affairs of Germany , he died in the Year 936. Otto the Great . After him succeeded his Son Otto , Surnamed the Great , who at first was engaged in heavy Civil Wars against several Princes , but especially against those who pretended to be of the Race of Charles the Great , and were extremely dissatisfied that the Royal Dignity was transferred to the Saxons . He was also very Fortunate in his Wars against the Danes . To the Hungarians , who ventured to make another Incursion into Germany , he gave a capital overthrow near Augsburgh , since which time , they never have dared to shew themselves in Germany . In Italy there had been great Confusions for a long time , the Soveraignty having been usurped sometimes by one , sometimes by another , till at last ▪ Otto being called thither , possessed himself both of the Kingdom of Italy and the Imperial Dignity , it having been then agreed , that both the Imperial and Royal Dignity of Italy , should be inseparably annexed , without any further Election , to the Royal Dignity of Germany , and that no Pope should be chosen without the Approbation of the King of the Germans , ●62 . and Otto was Crowned at Rome : tho' this Conquest has proved not very beneficial to Germany , the succeeding Popes having made it their Business to raise continual Disturbances , which was not easy to be prevented , because these Places were not kept in awe by strong Castles or Garisons . Wherefore as often as the Popes were pleased to raise new Commotions , the Germans were obliged to send great Armies thither , which continual Alarms consumed great quantities of Men and Money : In lieu of which , their Kings had scarce any Revenues out of Italy , except that they had Free Quarters and Entertainment given them during their stay there . This Otto died in the Year 974 leaving for his Successour his Son Otto II. Otto II. who also at first met with great Disturbances from some of the Princes of Germany . Afterwards Lotharius King of France would have made himself Master of Loraine , and had very near surprised the Emperour at Aix la Chapelle : But Otto marched with an Army through Champaigne to the very Gates of Paris ; but in his return home received a considerable Loss . At last a Peace was concluded at Rheims , by Vertue of which , Loraine was left to the Emperour . He then undertook an Expedition into Italy against the Greeks , who had made themselves Masters of that Country ; these he overthrew at first , but received afterwards a grand Defeat , because the Romans and those of Benevento immediatly turned their Backs ; he himself fell into the Hands of the Enemy , but found means to make his Escape from them , and revenged himself against the former for their Infidelity . He died not long after of Vexation . His Son Otto III. Otto I ▪ did employ a great part of his Reign in appeasing these Tumults , which were raised in Rome by the Consul Crescentius , who aiming at the Sovereignty , was hanged for his pains by Order of Otto , who was afterwards poysoned by the Widdow of the said Crescentius with a pair of Gloves made up with a certain sort of Poyson . 1001. Otto having left no Children behind him , the Crown was conferred upon Henry II. Surnamed the Lame , Duke of Bavaria , who sprang from the Saxon Race ; with whom Ecbart Landgrave of Hesse , did contend for the Crown , but lost his Life in the Quarrel . This Emperour was entangled in continual Troubles in Italy , and chastised Boleslaus King of Poland , Because he was a great Benefactor to the Clergy , he was made a Saint after his Death .

§ 4. 1024. Henry II. having left no Children behind him , Conrad II. the Princes elected Conrad Sali Duke of Franconia , Emperour in his room , which occasioned great Jealousie in the Saxons , and great Wars in Germany . This Emperour met with great Disturbances both in Germany and Italy , which were at last all composed . Radolf the last King of Burgundy and Arus dying without Issue , left him that Kingdom by his last Will , which he took Possession of and united the same with Germany , having forced Eudo the Earl of Champaigne who made a pretension upon it , 1034. to resign his Title . He was also very Fortunate in his Wars against the Pole● and Sclavonians , and died in the Year 1035. Him succeeded his Son Henry , Henry III : Surnamed the Black , who was continually allarm'd by the Hungarians and the Popes Intrigues , against whom he maintained the Imperial Dignity with great bravery . He died in the Year 1056. His Son Henry IV. Henry IV. his Reign was very long , but also very Troublesome and Unfortunate . Among other Reasons , this may be counted one of the Chiefest , that he being but Six Years of Age when his Father died , was left to the Tuition of such as had no true Care of his Education ; and besides this , by selling the Church Benefices without having any Regard to Deserts , had done considerable Mischief to the Empire . Wherefore Henry coming to his riper Years , and perceiving how the Ecclesiasticks had got all the best Possessions of the Empire into their Hands , he resolved to dispossess them again , whereby he drew upon himself the hatred of the Clergy . The Saxons were also his great Enemies , because he had by Building up of some Fortresses endeavoured to restrain their Insolencies ; and tho' he often kept his Court in Saxony , yet he seldom preferred the Saxons to any Offices . Most of the Princes were also dissatisfied with him , because he rarely advised with them concerning the publick State of Affairs , but either followed the Advice of his Counsellors , who were most of them Men of mean Birth , or else his own Head . These and some other Reasons , set the Saxons against him in an open Rebellion , with whom he waged long and bloody Wars , The Pope gives him great trouble till he vanquished them at last . But Pope Hildebrand or Gregory VII . and his Successours , did raise a more dreadful Storm against him ; for the Popes having long since been vexed to the Heart , that they and the rest of the Clergy should be subject to the Emperour , Hildebrand thought to have now met with a fair Opportunity to set the Clergy at Liberty , at a time when the Emperour was entangled in a War with the Saxons , and hated by most Princes of the Empire . The Emperour had lived somewhat too Free in his younger Years , and the Church Benefices having been rather bestowed upon Favourites or such as payed well for them , than such as deserved them , furnished the Pope with a specious Pretence to make a Decree , that it was not the Emperour 's right to bestow Bishopricks or other Church Benefices upon any Body , but that it did belong to the Pope . The Emperour was also summoned to appear at Rome , and to give an Account concerning his Mis-behaviour , and in case of failure , he was threatened with an Excommunication . On the other Hand , the Emperour having declared the Pope unworthy of his Office , would have deposed him . So the Pope excommunicated the Emperour , discharging all his Subjects from their Allegiance due to him , which proved of such Consequence in those Times , that all his Authority fell to the Ground at once among most of his Subjects , whereby he was reduced to the greatest Extremity . For most Princes assembled at Trebes , where they deposed Henry : which Sentence , however , was so far mitigated afterwards , that the same should be left to the Pope's decision . Henry therefore accompanied by a few , was obliged to undertake a Journey in the midst of the Winter into Italy , and being arrived at Canu●io , was fain to stay three Days barefooted in a coarse Woollen Habit in the outward Court , and in an humble posture , to beg the Pope's Absolution , which he at last granted him .

But the Emperour received no great Advantage by it , for the Italians were quite disgusted at this Demeanour of his , which obliged the Emperour to make use of his former Authority to reduce them to Obedience . In the mean while the Princes of Germany by instigation of the Pope , did elect Radolph Duke of Swabia their King ; but the Bavarians , Franconians , and the Countries next adjacent to the Rhine did remain in obedience of the Emperour Henry . Thus a bloody War ensued , wherein Radolph , and the Saxons were vanquish'd in two battels , and in the third he lost his right hand and life . 1084. Then Henry call'd together an Assembly of the Bishops , and having deposed Hildebrand , he caused another to be chosen in his room : He also return'd home himself , and banish'd Hildebrand . But the Saxons persisted in their Rebellion against the Emperour , who was again Excommunicated by the Pope , and having first set up Herman Duke of Luxenburgh , and after his death , Ecbert Marquess of Saxony for their Kings , H●● S●n R●●els . but to no purpose ; they at last stirr'd up the Emperors Son against the Father . Against him the Emperour raised a great Army , whom the Son met , and in a deceitful manner begg'd his pardon : Upon his perswasions the Father having abandon'd his Forces , and being upon his Journey to the Dyet at Mayence , accompanied by a few , this antient Prince was made a Prisoner and Deposed . 1106. He died soon after in great misery , who , in sixty two battels which he had fought in his life time , generally obtained the Victory .

§ 5. Henry V. As soon as Henry V. was made Emperour he followed his Fathers example in maintaining the Imperial Dignity : For as soon as he had settled the Affairs of Germany , he marched with an Army towards Rome , to renew the antient Right of the Emperours in nominating of Bishops , and to be Crowned there . The Pope , Paschal II. having got notice of the Emperours design , raised a great Tumult at Rome , where the Emperour was so close beset , that he was fain to fight in Person for his safety : But the Emperour having got the upper hand , made the Pope a Prisoner , and forced him to give his consent to his demands . And this their Agreement was confirmed by solemn Oaths and Execrations ; yet no sooner had the Emperour turn'd his back , but the Pope having declared the Agreement void , stirr'd up the Saxons and the Bishops in Germany against the Emperour . With these Henry was engag'd in a very tedious War ; and perceiving at last , that there was no other way left to compose these differences , he granted the Popes demands , by renouncing his Right to nominate Bishops , 1122. at the Dyet held at Worms : which resignation , as it greatly diminish'd the Emperour's Authority , so on the other hand , it strengthened the power of the Pope . 1125. This Emperour died without Issue . Him succeeded Lotharius Duke of Saxony , Lothar●us the Sax●n . who had for a Rival in the Empire Cunrad Duke of Franconia , whom he quickly oblig'd to beg fair Quarters . This Emperour having twice undertaken an Expedition into Italy , did with great Glory restore Tranquility to that Country ; and , because he used to flatter the Pope , he was in great esteem among the Clergy . He died in the year 1138. After his death Cunrad III. obtained the Imperial Dignity , who was opposed by Henry Duke of Saxony and Bavaria , and his Brother Wulff , which occasioned bloody Wars against him . But peace being restored among them , he undertook an Expedition into the Holy Land , where he underwent great Calamities ; for , tho he fought his way through the Saracens , and arriv'd safely at Jerusalem , yet after he had lost the greatest part of his Army , without doing any thing of moment , he was fain to return home . But whilst he was busie in making preparations for another Expedition into Italy he died , in the year 1252.

§ 6. Frederick I. Fredrick I. succeeded him , who by the Italians was Surnamed Barbarossa , Duke of Swabia , who immediately at the beginning of his Reign , having setled the affairs of Germany , did afterwards reduce Italy under his obedience ; which however was not of long continuance ; for the Milaneses quickly Rebell'd , but were severely chastis'd , their City having been laid level with the ground . He was also in continual broils with the Pope , against whom , and his Associates , he obtained several Victories ; yet being at last tired out with so many wars , he made peace with him , especially since his Son Otto had been taken Prisoner by the Venetians . At the concluding of this Peace , 't is said , that Pope Alexander III. did set his foot upon the Emperours neck , which by a great many is taken for a fable . This Emperour was the last who maintained the Authority of the German Emperours in Italy . Last of all he undertook an Expedition into the Holy Land against Saladin the Sultan of Egypt , who had taken the City of Jerusalem : He beat the Saracens several times , but endeavouring to pass over a River in Cilicia on Horseback , or as some will have it , intending to wash himself in the River , he was drowned . 1189. And tho his Son Frederic , after his Fathers death , did take a great many Cities in Syria , yet the whole Expedition had a very bad end , the greatest part of the Army , together with the Duke Frederick having been consumed by the Plague , Henry VI. or Famin. Frederick was succeeded by his Son Henry VI. in the Empire , who , with his Lady Constantia , got the Kingdoms of Sicily , Calabria and Apuiia . This Emperour went to Rome to receive the Crown from Pope Celestin , when the Pope sitting in his Chair , and the Emperour on his knees , put first the Crown upon his head , but immediatly struck the same off again with his foot , intimating thereby , as if it was in the power of the Popes to give and to take away the Imperial Crown . He died in the year 1198. having just then made great preparations for an Expedition into the Holy Land , and sent his Army before , he being ready to follow .

§ 7. Philip After the death of Henry VI. the Germans were miserably divided among themselves ; for Frederick II. his Son , being then but five years old , his Uncle Philip pretended to have the Tuition of his Nephew , and the Administration of the Empire , according to the last Will of the deceas'd Emperour ; but this being opposed by the Pope , he perswaded some of the Princes to elect Otto Duke of Saxony . Germany was thus miserably torn in pieces , most siding with Philip , the rest with Otto . After a long war an agreement was made betwixt them , that Otto should Marry the Daughter of Philip , but lay down the Royal Title , till the death of Philip , when the same was to be restored to him . Not long after Philip was murthered at Bamberg by Otto the Palatin of Wittelbach . After his death Otto obtained the Imperial Dignity , 1208. and having been Crowned at Rome , Otto VI. he resolved to reunite such places as were unjustly possess'd by the Popes to the Empire , which so exasperated the Pope , that he Excommunicated him , exhorting the Princes to elect another Emperour . Most of them were for Frederick II. Frederick II. Son of Henry VI. which made Otto to hasten into Germany ; but having in vain endeavour'd to maintain himself in the Empire , he was forc'd to surrender the Imperial Crown to Frederick the Second , King of Sicily and Naples , and Duke of Suabia ; who , after he had bestowed ▪ a considerable time in setling the Affairs of Germany , went into Italy , where he was Crowned by the Pope . In the year 1228. he undertook an Expedition into the Holy Land , and retook Jerusalem from the Saracens . He was continually alla●m'd by the intrigues of the Popes , who were for playing the Masters in Italy ; against whom he bravely maintained his Right . This occasioned several Excommunications to be thundred out against him by the Popes , who raised great disturbances . From hence had their rise the two famous Factions in Italy , whereof those who sided with the Pope , called themselves Guelfs , The ●ue●fs and G●b●●lins . but these who were for the Emperour , Gibellins ; which two Factions , for a considerable time after , occasioned great Commotions in Italy : And tho Frederick behav'd himself bravely against the Pope and his Associates , yet the Popes Excommunication , had such powerful Influence in that Superstitious Age , that , after the Pope had solemnly deposed him in the Council held at Lyons , some Princes of Germany did choose Henry , 1245. Landgrave of Thuringia their King , who was commonly call'd the King of the Priests ; but he dying in the year next following , some Princes declared William Earl of Holland their King ; who was not able to Establish himself , being opposed by Cunrad , Son of Frederick II. who was appointed to succeed his Father in the Empire . In the mean time his Father had been very unsuccessful in Italy , who at last died in the year 1250. Cunrad having left Germany , retired into his Hereditary Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily , where he died . 1254. William Earl of Holland was slain in a battel against the Frizelanders , in the year 1256.

§ 8. A long inte●regnum . With the death of Frederick II. the Authority of the German Emperours in Italy was quite extinguish'd : And that it might not be revived again , the Pope gave the Kingdom of Naples to Charles Duke of Anjou , who , by the Instigation of the Pope , caused the young Cunradin ( who being the Son of Cunrad , was come to recover his Herediatary Kingdom , and taken Prisoner in a battel fought betwixt them ) to be executed by the hands of the Hangman ; with whom was extinguish'd the Race of the Dukes of Swabia . In the mean time there were great divisions among the German Princes , concerning the election of a new Emperour ; some of them had chosen Richard Duke of Cornwal , Son of John King of England , and the rest were for Alfonsus X. King of Castile ; both were elected in the year 1257. Richard came on his Journey as far as the Rhine , to take possession of the Empire , but , for want of Money , was forc'd to return home again : And Alfonsus came not within the sight of Germany . Then there was a complete and long vacancy of the Throne in Germany ; during which time there was nothing to be seen but confusion , every body pretending to be Master . These Civil Disorders were of the worse consequence , because that about the same time the three great Families of the Dukes of Swabia , the Marquesses of Austria , and Landgraves of Thuringia being extinct , a great many aspired to possess themselves of these Countries . To be short , the longest Sword was then the best Title , and he that could master another kept him under subjection ; and robbing and plundering was an allow'd exercise at that time . Against these outrageous Proceedings several of the Cities upon the Rhine enter'd into a Confederacy , with whom a great many other Princes afterwards joyning their Forces , they demolish'd the strong Holds of these Robbers , 1255. and clear'd the Highways .

§ 9. R●d●lph ●arl of Habsbu●●h At last Rodolph Earl of Habsburgh and Landgrave of Alsace ( from whom are descended the present Arch-Dukes of Austria ) was unanimously chosen Emperour ; who , 1273. the better to establish himself in the Throne , Marry'd his three Daughters to three of the great Princes of Germany , viz. to Lewis Palatin of the Rhine , to Albert Duke of Saxony , and to Otto Marquess of Brandenburgh . After the death of Frederick Marquess of Austria , who had his Head cut off at Naples , together with Cunradin , Ottocar the King of Bohemia had possess'd himself of Austria , Stiria , Crain , the Windishmarck and Portenau . But Rodolph , who thought that his Family had more Right to it having ●etaken these Countries , from Ottocar , gave them in Fief to his Son Albert ; and to the second , whose name was Rodolph , the Dukedom of Swabia : Besides this , the Grandson of Albert got Crain and Tyrol . Thus Rodolph did by obtaining the Imperial Dignity , raise his House from a moderate State to great Power and vast Riches . But tho he was often invited to come into Italy , yet he could never be perswaded to it , alledging that old and notorious saying of the Fox , Quia me vestigia terreat ; because the footsteps deter me . Nay he declar'd a great many Cities there Free , for Sums of money ; by which the Kingdom of Italy , being first torn into a great many pieces , was quite lost : But Germany he took into his particular Care , and destroy'd a great many Castles there which serv'd for a retreat for Robbers . He was the first that introduc'd the use of the German Tongue in all Publick Courts and Private Transactions , whereas formerly the Latin Tongue had been made use of in the like cases . He dyed in the year 1291.

His Son Albert did lay claim to the Empire , but by the Interest of the Archbishop of Mayence , Adolph Adolph Earl of Nassau , who was his kinsman , was chosen Emperour ; the Archbishop being in hopes to have , under him , the supreme Management of the Affairs ; but Adolph not being willing to depend on the Archbishop , he conceived a hatred against him . Some did think it unbecoming the grandure of the Emperour , that he engaged in a League with England against France for a Sum of Mony paid to him by the English ; but this might admit of a very good excuse , since besides this , the English had promiss'd the Emperour to assist him in the recovery of the Kingdom of Arclat , a great part of which France had , during the Troubles in Germany , taken into its possession . On the other hand France sided with Albert , who being advanced near the Rhine , the Archbishop of Mayence did assemble some of the Electors , who being dissatisfied with Adolph , depos'd him , and chose Albert Emperour in his stead . A bloody Battel was fought betwixt these two near Spires , wherein Adolph being slain , Albert I. being slain , the Imperial Crown remain'd to Albert : But because he aim'd at nothing more than to enrich himself , his Reign was both very unglorious and unfortunate . His Covetousness was at last the occasion of his death ; for his Nephew John Duke of Swabia , whom he had dispossess'd of his Country , murder'd him near Rhinefeld . 1308.

§ 10. After his death , Philip King of France endeavour'd to obtain the Imperial Crown , but was prevented by the Electors , 〈◊〉 VII . who , upon the perswasion of the Pope , chose Henry VII . Earl of Luxemburgh . This Emperour , after he had setled Germany , undertook a Journey into Italy , with a resolution to suppress the Civil Commotions there , and to reestablish the Imperial Authority . The beginning of this undertaking proved so prosperous , that every body hoped for great success from it : 〈◊〉 by ● Monk . But in the midst of this prosperity he was murther'd by a Monk , who had given him a poison'd Host , he having been hired by the Florentines , the Emperours Enemies , to commit this fact .

In the year 1313. the Electors were again divided in the Election of a new Emperour , some having given their Votes for Lewis Duke of Bavaria , 〈…〉 . the rest for Frederick Duke of Austria . The first was Crown'd at Aix la Chapelle , the latter at B●nn . These two carry'd on a War against each other for the Imperial Crown during the space of nine years , to the great detriment of the whole Empire : At last Frederick being made a Prisoner in a battel fought in the year 1323. Lewis became sole Master of the Empire , and restored its Tranquility . But he afterwards went into Italy , to back the Gibellines , who were of his side , and tho at first he was very prosperous , yet could he not settle his Affairs to any purpose , Exc●mmunic●ted b●●●●e Pope . because the Pope had Excommunicated him . Wherefore also the Popes Associates in Germany , maugre all his resistance , were always too hard for him ; and at last , by the perswasions of the Pope , stirr'd up the Electors against him , who chose Charles IV. Marquess of Moravia , Son of John King of Bohemia , Emperour in his stead ; who nevertheless , as long as Lewis lived , was not much taken notice of . He died in the year 1347. It is to be observed , that the preceding Emperours used generally to make their Progress thro' the Empire , and to maintain their Court out of the Revenues belonging to the Empire : But this Lewis IV. was the first who kept his constant Court in his Hereditary Country , and maintain'd it out of his own Revenue ; whose example the succeeding Emperours follow'd , the Revenues belonging to the Empire having been by degrees extremely diminish'd .

§ 11. After the death of Lewis , Charles IV. there were some who would have made void the former Election of Charles , and had chosen in his stead Edward King of England , who did not think fit to accept of the Imperial Dignity : The same was also refused by Frederick Marquess of Misnia : At last Gunther Earl of Swartzburgh was elected ; whom Charles caused to be poison'd , and by his Liberality establish'd himself in the Empire . During his Reign he gave away a considerable part of the Dependencies of the Empire , and among the rest , he granted to France the perpetual Vicarship of the Kingdom of Arclat ; and in Italy he sold what he could to the fairest bidder : But he was not so careless of his Kingdom of Bohemia , unto which he annex'd , among other Countries , that of Silesia . He was a great favourer of the Cities which he dignified with such Privileges , that they might the better be able to maintain themselves against the Power of the Princes : The best thing that ever he did , was , that he caused first to be compiled the Golden Bull , T●e Golden Bull. wherein were set down the Rules to be observed in the elections of the ensuing Emperours , and Divisions among the Electors , prevented for the future . He died in the year 1378. having not long before by great Presents made to the Electors , prevailed with them , to chose his Son Wenceslaus King of the Romans : Wenceslaus . But he being very brutish and careless of the Affairs of the Empire , was deposed by the Electors , which he little regarded , but retired into his Hereditary Kingdom of Bohemia , where he lived for a considerable time . After Wenceslaus was deposed , Jodocus Marquess of Moravia was chosen Emperour , but he happening to die within a few months after , before he could take possession of the Empire , Fred●rick o● Bru●s●ick . Frederick Duke of Brunswick was elected in his stead , who , in his Journey to Francfort was , by instigation of the Archbishop of Mayence , Rupert . murthered by the Earl of Waldeck . At last Rupert , Palatin of the Rhine was chosen Emperour ; who Reigned with great applause in Germany ; but his Expedition into Italy proved fruitless . He died in the year 1410.

§ 12. Sigismund . After the death of Rupert , Sigismund King of Hungary , Brother to Wenceslaus , was made Emperour ; a Prince endow'd with great Qualities , but very unfortunate in his wars , having , before he obtained the Imperial Crown , received a great defeat from the Turks near Cogrelis ; which was occasioned by the too much heat and forwardness of the French Auxiliaries . He caused John Huss , 1393. notwithstanding the safe Conduct granted him , to be burnt at the Council of Constance ; whose death his adherents , who called themselves Hussites , did revenge with great fury upon Bohemia and Germany ; this War having taken up the greatest part of his Reign . He died in the year 1437.

After him succeeded his Son-in-Law Albert II. Albert II. Duke of Austria , and King of Hungary and Bohemia , who did not Reign a whole year . He died in the year 1439. whilst he was very busie in making preparations against the Turks . Fredrick III Him succeeded his kinsman Frederick III. Duke of Austria ; since which time all the succeeding Emperours have been of this House . During his Reign several disturbances were raised in Germany , which were neglected by the Emperour . He also had some differences with Ladislaus , Son of Albert II. concerning Austria , and was attack'd by Matthias Hunniades King of Hungary ; which war he prosecuted with more patience than vigour . He died in the year 1493. Him succeeded his Son Maximilian I. Maximilian I. who had the good fortune by his Marriage with Mary the Daughter of Charles the Hardy Duke of Burgundy , to annex the Netherlands to the House of Austria . As he was very fickle in his undertakings , so the success was generally answerable to it and various ; and his Wars with the Switzers , and those in Italy against the Venetians had but a very indifferent end : The chiefest thing of moment done by him , is , that whereas formerly all differences in Germany were decided by the Sword , he reestablished the Peace of the Empire . He died in the year 1519.

§ 13. Charles V. Him succeeded his Grandson Charles V. King of Spain and Sovereign of the Netherlands ; under whose Reign the face of Affairs in Germany was remarkably changed ; which was occasioned by the Religious Differences set on foot about that time : For the Pope had caused Indulgences to be sold here in so scandalous a manner , that the wiser sort began to be asham'd of it . 1517. Wherefore Martin Luther Doctor of Divinity and Professor in the University of Wittenbergh , held a publick Disputation against it ; The Reformation . wh● being opposed by others , all the neighbouring Countries were alarm'd at it . Luther at first did submit himself to the decision of the Pope , but finding that he favour'd the Indulgence Merchants , and that he was condemn'd by him , he appealed to a free General Council , and then began to go farther , to examine the Popes Authority ; and having laid open some Errours and Abuses which were crept in among them , his Doctrine was so approved of by some of the Princes and free Imperial Cities , that they began to banish the Priests and Monks out of several places , and to reduce their Revenues . And tho the Emperour did declare Luther , 1521. at the Dyet of Worms , an Out-Law , and endeavour'd by several Proclamations to put a stop to these Proceedings and Innovations ; nevertheless , the Emperour being then engag'd in a war with France , and therefore not in a capacity to apply himself in good earnest to the suppressing of this Division ▪ Luthers Party grew daily stronger .

Perhaps he was afterwards not very sorry , to see the wound encrease , that he might make the better benefit of the Cure ; there having been a Proclamation publish'd at the Dyet of Spiers , 1529. which was in no ways agreeable to the Lutheran Princes , they protested against the same , The Rise of the Name of Protestants . from whence they are called Protestants . In the year next following they delivered a Confession of their Faith to the Emperour at Augsburgh , and entered into a Defensive Alliance at Smalkald ; 1530. which League was renewed in the year 1535. The League at Smalkald when a great many Princes and Free Imperial Cities were received into it . This League made at Smalkald was a great eye-sore to the Emperour , who used all means to dissolve the same : But the Protestants , who now began to trust to their own strength , standing by one another , the Hostilities began on both sides , and the Protestants did bring into the Field an Army of 100000 Men , 1546. under the Conduct of John Frederick Elector of Saxony , and Philip Landgrave of Hesse . If they had fal'n immediately upon the Emperour , whose Forces were then not joined , they might in all probability have worsted him ; but having lost the first opportunity , the Emperour strengthen'd himself , that he forced the Protestants to quit the Field and to disband their Forces . He also caused a diversion to be given the Elector at home by his Kinsman Maurice , which had such influence upon the Free Imperial Cities , that they were oblig'd to submit themselves and to pay considerable Fines . In the year next following the Emperour fell into Saxony , and having defeated the Elector near Michlbergh , took him prisoner ; against whom he pronounced sentence of Death , which however he chang'd into an Imprisonment . Philip Landgrave of Hesse having also submitted himself , was , contrary to agreement , made a Prisoner ; whereby the Protestant Religion in Germany was reduc'd to great extremity . The Electorat of Saxony was given to Maurice Duke of Saxony , who at last being resolved not to permit any longer that both the Religion and Liberty should be quite destroy'd , neither that his Wifes Father the Landgrave of Hesse , who upon his Parole had surrendred himself to the Emperour , should be detain'd a Prisoner , fell so suddenly with his Forces upon the Emperour , that he was very near having surprised his Person at Inspruck . 1552. Henry II. King of France having also made an Inroad on the other side of Germany , surprized Metz , Tullie , and Verdun . King Ferdinand therefore the Emperours Brother interposing his Authority , A Peace concluded . a Peace was concluded at Passau ; where their Religion was secured to the Protestants , till matters could be better setled at the next ensuing Dyet . 1552. The Landgrave was released ; as likewise John Frederick the Elector , who was dismissed out of prison a little before by the Emperour . 1555. At last the Religious Peace in Germany was establish'd , at the Dyet at Augsburgh , where it was provided , that neither Party should annoy one another under the pretext of Religion , and that such of the Church Lands and Revenues , as the Protestants had been possess'd of before the Peace concluded at Passau , should remain in their possession . An Insurrection of the Boors . The Boors also in Germany raised a most dangerous Rebellion under the Reign of Charles V : of whom there were kill'd above 100000. 1525. In the year 1529. the City of Vienna was besieg'd by Solyman the Turkish Emperour , but to no purpose , he being oblig'd to raise the Siege , 1532. not without considerable loss : And afterwards the Turks who were marching with a great Army into Austria , were beaten back again . In the year 1534. the Anabaptists were for erecting a new Kingdom in Munster in Westphalia , under the Conduct of John , a Taylor of Leiden , and one Knipperdolling ; who receiv'd the dire Reward of their madness . He Resign . At last this great Prince Charles V. surrender'd the Imperial Dignity to his Brother Ferdinand I. Ferdinand I. King of Hungary and Bohemia , who united these two Kingdoms to the House of Austria , he having Married Anna Sister of Lewis King of Hungary and Bohemia , who was slain in the battel fought against the Turks near Mohatz . He Reign'd very peaceably in Germany , and died in the year 1564. Maximilian II. Him succeeded his Son Maximilian II. who also Reign'd in peace , except that a Tumult happen'd at that time in Germany , raised by one William Grumpach and his Associates , who having first murther'd Melchior Zobel the Archbishop of Wartzburgh , had plunder'd that City ; they also endeavour'd to stir up the Nobility and to raise disturbances in other places . 1567. This man having been declar'd an Outlaw , was protected by John Frederick Duke of Saxony , who paid dearly for it , Gotha , one of his best strong Holds having been demolish'd , and he himself taken Prisoner ▪ Maximilian died in the year 1576. R●dolph II. Him succeded his Son Rudolph II. who Reign'd also very peaceably in Germany , except that the Hungarian Wars did now and then keep the Germans a little in exercise ; and that in the year 1609. the right of Succession in the Country of Juliers was brought in question . At last his Brother Mathias , Arch-Duke of Austria grew impatient to possess his Brothers Inheritance before his death , 1612. to him Rudolphus surrender'd Hungary and Bohemia , and at his death he left him his other Countries and the Imperial Crown .

§ 14. Under the Reign of Matthias , Matthias . the ill Humours did so encrease by degrees in Germany , that towards his latter days they caused violent Convulsions . The origin of this war , which lasted thirty years , was this : In the Religious Peace formerly concluded at Passau , two Parties were only included , viz. the Roman Catholicks , and those who adher'd to the Augsburgh Confession , Origin of the German Wars . the free exercise of Religion being forbidden to all others . But some of the States of the Empire , among whom the chiefest were the Elector Palatin and the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel , having since that time receiv'd the Reform'd Religion , commonly call'd the Calvinian , the Roman Catholicks were against their enjoying the benefit of the Religious Peace . These on the other hand alledged , that they did belong , as well as the rest , to the Augsburgh Confession , and that the whole difference did only consist in some few passages : But the rest of the Protestants who strictly adher'd to the Words of the Augsburgh Confession , were not for receiving them into the same Communion , yet it was their opinion , that they ought not to be prosecuted for the differences that were betwixt them . But afterwards these controverted Articles were by the heat of the Priests explain'd in so different a manner , that the name of a Calvinist became as odious to some Protestants , as that of a Roman Catholick . The Roman Catholicks taking hold of this opportunity , caressed the old Protestants , especially those in the Electorate of Saxony , unto whom they represented the Calvinists as a Generation equally destructive to both Parties ; whereby they hop'd to disjoyn them from the rest , and after they had destroy'd them , to make the easier work with the rest of the Protestants . These therefore of the Reformed Religion , entered into a Confederacy for their common security ; into which there having been receiv'd a great many other Protestant Princes , it was call'd the Evangelical Vnion . Th● Evangelical Union . In opposition to this Confederacy , the Roman Catholicks made an Alliance among themselves , which they call'd the Catholick League , whose Head was the Duke of Bavaria , a constant Rival of the Elector Palatin . There happened also some other matters which had exasperated both Parties , viz. that the Protestants had reduced a great many Church Revenues , after the Peace at Passau ; that the Cities of Aix la Chapelle , and Donawerth , had been very hardly dealt withal , and some other matters , which were manifest proofs of the Animosities of both Parties against one another .

§ 15. The Bohemian Tumults . Both Parties being thus exasperated and prepared for War , did administer fuel to that flame which quickly after broke out in the Kingdom of Bohemia . The Bohemians pretended , that the Emperour Matthias had taken from them their Privileges , and having raised a Tumult , did throw three Persons of Quality , who spoke in the Emperours behalf , out of the Castle Windows ; 1618. and immediatly after entered with an Army into Austria : In the mean while Matthias dy'd , Fer●inand I whose Nephew Ferdinand ( who also succeeded him in the Empire ) the Bohemians had before his death received for their King ; but now , under pretence that he had broken the Contract made betwixt him and the Estates , T●e Crown of Bohemia offer'd to the Electo● Palatin . had renounc'd Ferdinand , and offer'd the Crown to Frederick Elector Palatin . This young Prince was perswaded by some of his Friends , who were of an unsettled Spirit , and not diving deep enough into a business of such Consequence , to accept of this offer , before he had laid a foundation for such an undertaking : For the Bohemians themselves were fickle and unfaithful , Bethlem Gabor Inconstant . England was not for medling in the matter ; Holland was very backward in giving assistance . The Union which they chiefly rely'd upon , was a Body with a great many Heads , without vigour , or any constant Resolution . Besides this , France did endeavour to dissolve this League , as being not willing that the Elector Palatin and the rest of the Reform'd Religion , should grow too potent ; for fear , that in time they might afford their assistance to the Hugonots , whose destruction was then in agitation at the French Court. In the beginning of this War the Affairs of Ferdinand look'd with an ill Aspect ; because Bethlem Gabor , Duke of Transilvania , fell into Hungary , in hopes to become Master of that Kingdom ; and there were also great discontents among his Subjects in Austria : but he having recovered himself by the Alliance made with the Duke of Bavaria , The ill succes● of the Elector Palatin . the Elector Palatin lost , with that unfortunate Battel fought on the white Hill near Prague , at once all his former advantages : For Ferdinand soon after reduc'd Bohemia , 1620. Moravia , and Silesia to obedience . Spinola made an inroad into the Lower Palatinat , which was deserted by the Forces of the League . The Duke of Bavaria got the Vpper Palatinat and the Electoral Dignity . The Elector of Saxony , who had been very instrumental in reducing of Silesia , had for his reward Lusatia , in Fief of the Kingdom of Bohemia .

In the mean time the Marquess of Durlach , Th● War spread in Ge●ma●y . Christian Duke of Brunswick , the Earl of Mansfield , and some others who were of the Elector Palatins Party , march'd with their Armies up and down the Country , and the Emperour , under pretence of pursuing them , sent his Forces into all parts of the Empire . Against these the Circle of the Lower Saxony arm'd itself , having made Christian IV. King of Denmark , General of that Circle : But he having receiv'd a great overthrow near Kings Lutter , 1626. from Tilly the Imperial General , the Emperour over-run all the Lower Saxony ; and having oblig'd King Christian to make Peace with him at Lubeck ▪ 1629. he began to get footing near the Coast of the Baltick . The Procl●mation concerning Churc● Lan●s .

§ 16. The Emperour by this success being arrived to such a pitch of Greatness , that he did not question but for the future to be absolute in Germany ; 1629. did publish a Proclamation , enjoining the Protestants to restore to the Catholicks all such Church Lands or Revenues , as were taken from them since the Peace made at Passau . Under this pretence he hop'd quickly to subdue the rest of the Protestant Princes , not questoning but that the Catholick Estates would easily be forc'd to submit themselves to his pleasure .

The Protestants , 't is true , enter'd into a Defensive Alliance at Leipsick , but wi●hout any great prospect of success , Gustavus A●olphus . if Gustavus Adolphus , King of Sweedland had not come to their assistance . This King was induc'd to enter Germany , partly because the preservation of his own State seem'd to depend on the Emperours not getting firm footing on the Baltick , partly because several of the German Princes had crav'd his assistance , partly also because the Emperour had assisted the Poles against him in Prussia , and he stood in a good corespondency with France and Holland , who were very jealous at the Greatness of the House of Austria . 1630. This King came with an Army into Germany , and drove the Imperial Forces out of Pomerania and the neighbouring Countries . In the mean time the Imperial General Tilly had quite destroy'd the City of Magdeburgh , and was upon his march against the Elector of Saxony , whom he did not question but to rout quickly : But King Gustavus having join'd his Forces with those of the Elector of Saxony , defeated Tilly , in that eminent Battel near Leipsick ; where the Emperour at one stroke lost all his hopes which he had conceiv'd from the happy success of his Arms during the space of twelve years before . From thence he march'd on to the Rhine , where he made almost miraculous progresses ; but because the Elector of Saxony had not so vigorously attack'd the Hereditary Countries of the Emperour , he had thereby leisure given him to raise another Army , 1632. under the Conduct of Wallenstein ; against whom the King lay encamp'd for a considerable time near Nurenbergh ; and afterwards in the battel of Lutzen , Gustavus'● D●●th . tho his side gain'd the Victory , he lost his life .

After his death his Generals and Confederates carry'd on the war , Th● Wa● continue● . under the Conduct of Axel Oxenstem , Chancellour of Sweden , with indifferent good success ; but having receiv'd an entire defeat in the battel near Noringen , which they fought without necessity , they lost all their Conquests . The Elector of Saxony having also concluded a peace with the Emperour at Prague , 1634. which was extremely disliked by the Protestant Party ; 1635. the Emperour was now again in hopes to drive the Swedes by force out of Germany : But by the valour and conduct of their Generals the Swedish Affairs began to look with a better face , who carry'd the War again into the very Hereditary Countries of the Emperour . At last all parties began to incline to a peace ; for the Emperour and the Princes of Germany were tired out with the war ; France began to be divided at home by Commotions ; Holland had made a separate peace with Spain ; and the Swedes feared that the Germans , of whom was compos'd the greatest part of their Army , might at last grow weary of being instrumental in the Ruin of their native Country , or that one unfortunate blow might chance to rob them of the Fruits of their former Victories ; a Peace was therefore concluded at Osnabrugge with Sweden , and at Munster with France ; Peace of Osn●●rugge and France . by virtue of which the Swedes got a part of Pomerania , Bremen , and Wismas , and five Millions of Crowns for the payment of their Forces . 1648. France kept Brisac , Suntgaw , a part of Alsace and Philipsbourg . By this Peace the Authority of the States of Germany and the Protestant Religion were Established at once ; and the Emperours Power confin'd within such Bounds , that he could not easily hereafter attempt any thing against either of them ; especially since both Sweden and France had a free passage left them , from whence they might easily oppose him , 1637. if he design'd to transgress these Limits . During this war dy'd Ferdinand II. Ferdinand t●e Third . whom succeeded his Son Ferdinand III. who died in the year 1657. In whose stead was , in the year next following , elected Emperour his Son Leopold .

§ 19. Leopold . After the Westphalian Peace Germany remained in peace for a considerable time , except that the Emperour and Elector of Brandenburgh ( at which time the Swedes were engag'd in a War with Denmark ) fell into Pomerania ; 1659. but these differences were compos'd by the peace made at Oliva . In the year 1663. a war began with the Turks ; War with the Turk when the Turks took New●eusel ; but were also , especially near St. Godhart ; soundly beaten . Some are of opinion , that if the Emperour had at that time vigorously purs●ed his Victory , he might have beaten them out of Hungary ; since the Turks were put into a great consternation by the Persians , and some Rebellious Bassa's , and the Venetians did so vigorously push on the Siege of Canea : But the Emperour was so forward in making peace with them , because , as it is supposed , he was jealous of France . And in the year 1672. Germany was again entangled in a war with France ; War with France . which was occasioned by the great progresses of the French against the Hollanders , who were reliev'd by the Emperour and the Elector of Brandenburgh : For tho in the year before the Emperour had made an Alliance with France , whereby he had promised , not to meddle in the War if France should attack one of the Triple Alliance ; nevertheless he sent his Forces towards the Rhine , under pretence that it belong'd to him as being Emperour , to take effectual care , that the flame which was burning in the neighbouring Countries , might not prove destructive to Germany : And the Elector of Brandenburgh made heavy complaints , that the French had made great havock in his Territories of Cleves . The French on the other side sent an Army towards Germany , in hopes to oblige the Emperour not to concern himself in this War ; but the French having not only committed great outrages in the Empire , but also taken into possession the City of Treves , and made great havock in the Palatinat , the Emperor perswaded the States of the Empire to declare war against France . Sweden was also afterwards engag'd in the same war ; Peace of Nim●e●●n ▪ which was ended by the peace made at Nimwegen ; 1679. whereby France got Friburgh in Bris●an , in lieu of Philipsburgh ; and Sweden was restored to those Provinces which it had lost during the war .

§ 18. The Genius o● this Nation . If we duly consider the Genius of this Nation , which inhabits this great Empire , it is most evident , that this Nation ever since the memory of Men has been very brave , and addicted to War ; and that Germany has been an inexhaustible Source of Souldiers , since there is scarce ever any want of Men , who are ready to serve for Money : and if they are once well Disciplined , they are not only good at the first onset , but are very fit to endure the hardships and inconveniences of a long war . There are not in any other Nation so many to be met withal , that are ready to list themselves in Foreign Service for Money ; neither ●is there any Country in Christendom where greater Forces both of Horse and Foot may be raised , than in Germany But besides this , the Germans are much addicted and very fit for Commerce , and all sorts of Handy-crafts Trade ; and not only the Inhabitants of the Cities do apply themselves with great industry to the same ; but also if a Countryman gets a little beforehand in the World , he puts his Son to some Handycraft's Trade or another , tho a great many of them afterwards run into the Wars . They are generally very free and honest , very ambitious to maintain the so much praised Fidelity of the antient Germans ; they are not easily stirr'd up to raise Tumults , but commonly are willing to remain under the same Government where they are Educated .

§ 19. Tho the German Empire has no Possessions abroad , Nature of 〈◊〉 Soil . except you would account Hungary to be such ; which is under subjection to the House of Austria ; nevertheless it is a Country of a vast extent by it self , which is full of great and small Cities , Towns and Villages : The Ground is very Fertile in general , there being very few spots to be met withal of any large extent , which do not produce something or another for the sustenance of Mankind ; so that there is every where great plenty of all sorts of Provisions . Germany also abounds in all sorts of Minerals , especially in Mines of Silver , Its Commodities . Copper , Tin , Lead , Iron , Mercury , and other sorts . It has abundance of Springs that furnish waters for the boyling of Salt : and those several great Navigable Rivers wherewith it is adorn'd , make it very commodious to transport its Commodities from one place to another . The Commodities of Germany are these ; v●z . Iron , and all sorts of Instruments made of it , Lead , Mercury , Wine , Corn , Beer , Wooll , course Cloth , all sorts of Linnen and Woollen Manufactories , Horses , Sheep , &c. If therefore the Germans would apply themselves to imitate these Manufactories at home , which are now Imported by Foreigners , or else wou'd be contented with their own , and not make use of Foreign Manufactories , those Commodities which are Exported out of Germany , wou'd much surpass these which are Imported ; and therefore it would of necessity grow very Rich , especially since a considerable quantity of Silver is digged out of the Mines there .

§ 20. Form of Government As for the Form of Government in Germany , it is to be considered , that it is not like some Kingdoms , where the Kings have the whole Power in their hands , and according to whose commands the Subjects are obliged to comport themselves ; neither is the Sovereign Power here circumscribed within certain bounds , as it is in some Kingdoms of Europe , where the Kings cannot exercise an absolute Sovereignty without the consent of the Estates : But Germany has its particular Form of Government , the like is not to be met withal in any Kingdom of Europe , except that the antient Form of Government in France came pretty near it . Germany acknowledges but one Supreme Head , under the Title of the Roman Emperour ; which Title did at first imply no more than the Sovereignty over the City of Rome , and the Protection of the Church of Rome and her Patrimony . This Dignity was first annexed to the German Empire by Otto I. but it is long ago since the Popes have robb'd the Kings of Germany of this Power , and only have left them the bare Name . But besides this , the Estates of Germany , some of which have great and potent Countries in their possession , have a considerable share of the Sovereignty over their Subjects ; and tho they are Vassals of the Emperour and Empire , nevertheless they ought not to be consider'd as Subjects , or only as potent or rich Citizens in a Government ; for they are actually possess'd of the supreme Jurisdiction in Criminal Affairs ; they have power to make Laws and to regulate Church Affairs , ( which however is only to be understood of the Protestants ) to dispose of the Revenues arising out of their own Territories ; to make Alliances , as well among themselves as with Foreign States , provided the same are not intended against the Emperour and Empire ; they may build and maintain Fortresses and Armies of their own , Coin Mony , and the like . This grandeur of the Estates , 't is true , is a main obstacle that the Emperour cannot make himself absolute in the Empire , except it be in his Hereditary Countries ; yet this has been always observ'd , the more potent the Emperour is , the more he has exercised his Authority , and the Estates have been forced to comply with his commands : and it is certain , that the grandure of the Estates , except what is contained in the Golden Bull concerning the Electoral Dignity , was more founded upon antient Customs and Precedents , than any real Constitutions ; till in the Westphalian Peace their Rights and Authority have been expresly and particularly confirm'd and establish'd .

§ 21. Stren●th and weakn●ss of this Empire . Tho it is certain that Germany within itself is so Potent , that it might be formidable to all its Neighbours , if its strength was well united an rightly employ'd ; nevertheless this strong Body has also its infirmities , which weaken its strength , and slacken its vigour : its irregular Constitution of Government is one of the chief causes of its Distemper ; it being neither one entire Kingdom , neither properly a Confederacy , but participating of both kinds : For the Emperour has not the entire Sovereignty over the whole Empire , nor each Estate in particular over his Territories ; and the former is more than a bare Administrator , yet the latter have a greater share in the Sovereignty than can be attributed to any Subjects or Citizens whatever , tho never so great . And this seems to be the reason why at last the Emperours did quit their pretensions upon Italy , and the Kingdom of Arclat ; because these potent Princes of Germany , Wh● the Emperour quitted the Kingdom of Arclat . and the turbulent Bishops , who were continually stirr'd up by the Popes , used to give them so much work , that they had enough to do to take care of Germany as the main Stake , without being able to concern themselves much about other parts . Yet do I not find any instances in History , that any of the antient Emperours did endeavour to subdue the Princes , and to make himself absolute Master of Germany . But this ambitious Design Charles V. as it seems , was first put upon by the Spaniards , or , as some will have it , by Nicolas Pereno● Granvel . And truly the Electors had the same reasons not to have admitted him to the Imperial Dignity , as they had not to admit Francis I. King of France : And common Reason tells us , What is the Interest of the Electors . that no Nation that has the Power of Electing a Prince , ought to choose such a one as if possess'd before of a considerable Hereditary Estate , that he may think it his Interest to take more care of that than the Elective Kingdom : For he either will certainly be very ca●●less of the Interest of the Elective Kingdom , or else he will make the Interest of the Elective Kingdom subservient to that of his Hereditary Countries , and make use of the Strength of the first to maintain the latter , and render it more Powerful ; or else he will endeavour , by making himself Sovereign over the Elective Kingdom , to make it dependent on his Hereditary Estate . Germany found all these three inconveniencies by experience , under the Reign of this Emperour ; The Conduct of Charles . for he came very seldom into Germany , and that only en passant : He never made the true Interest of Germany the Rule of his Designs , but all was carried on for the grandeur and increase of his House ; and at last , under pretence of Religion , he attempted to suppress entirely the antient Liberty of the Estates . On the contrary , if Germany had an Emperour at that time who had not been possess'd of any Countries , or at least an inconsiderable part without the Empire , the true Interest of the Empire would have been his Rule ; and it would have been his business not to side with either of these two Potent and couragious Nations of the French and Spaniards , but to have look'd upon them like an Arbitrator , and whilst they had been fighting together to have , according to the circumstances of Affairs , sometimes ballanc'd one , sometimes another , so that one might not become Master of the other ; and thereby gain such advantages , as might prove prejudicial to Germany : For it is a far different case , whether I come in betwixt two Parties as a Mediator , or whether I am engaged to one certain Party : For in the first Case , I can engage my self as deep as I think fit , and at least take care to come off harmless ; but in the latter case I must needs be a loser , let things go how they will , and at last another shall reap the Fruits of my Labour .

And to give a specious Colour to these Consequences , Of the Ga●ranties of the Circle of Bur●undy . so perjudicial to Germany , Charles V. did gain this Point , at the Dyet of Augsburgh , upon the Estates , at that time , 1548. when having brought the Protestants very low , no body durst oppose it , that they should take upon them the Guarantie of the Circle of Burgundy ; whereby Germany was obliged to be always engaged in the Wars betwixt Spain and France , and with its Treasure and Men to assist the Spaniards in the defence of the Netherlands . I must confess , that it is not the Interest of Germany , to see these Countries fall altogether into the hands of France ; nevertheless it is not absolutely necessary that the Estates in Germany should Ruin themselves for their sake ; since there are others also , who are better able , and have the same Interest that Germany has , to preserve these Provinces . The attempt which Charles V. made against the Protestant Religion in Germany , was a true Spanish Design : For not to mention here the notorious Falsities in the Roman Catholick Religion , I cannot for my life see , what could move the Emperour , if his aim had been for the sole Interest of the Empire , to act contrary to the general Inclination of the Nation , and not rather to take hold of this so favourable opportunity , to free himself from the Tyranny of the Popes , who for several Ages together had trampled upon the German Empire ; and with the superfluous Church-Lands , to encrease his own , and the Revenues of the Empire , or at least to give liberty to the Bishops to Marry without quitting their Church Benefices . If the Emperour would have given a helping hand , the Reformation would have been as easily setled in Germany , as it was in Sweden , England and Denmark

After these Spanish States Maxims had lain a while dormant , Ferdinand pursu●s th● Spanish M●xims . they were at last revived , and that with more vigour , under the Reign of Ferdinand II. besides a great deal of misery which did from thence accrue to Germany : this was the cause that the Estates of Germany , to preserve their Liberty , were obliged to seek for Foreign Aid , by which means they maintain'd their Liberty ; but it had been questionless more advantageous to Germany , not to have wanted the assistance of Foreigners , who were not forgetful to make their own advantage by it . Now if it may be supposed , that there are some remnants of the Spanish Leaven , it may easily be conjectur'd , what jealousie and distrusts must be betwixt the Members of the Empire , and how contrary and different their Counsels and Actions must needs be : and tho perhaps by setling a good understanding betwixt the Supreme Head and Estates , a medium might be found out to obviate this and some other inconveniencies , yet the●e reign various and great Distempers amongst the Estates themselves , which seem to render the best Remedies and Counsels either ineffectual , or at least very difficult : Among these must be counted the Religious Differences betwixt the Catholicks and the Protestants in general ; which Differences do not only depend on the several Opinions in Matters of Faith , but also on a Worldly Interest ; the Catholicks endeavouring upon all occasions to recover such Possessions as were taken from them since the Reformation ; and the Protestants being resolved to maintain themselves in the Possession of them . Wherefore it has been observ'd , that sometimes the Roman Catholicks have been more guided by their particular Interest , and by their Clergy , than by that of the Publick . Nay , it is to be fear'd , that if Germany should be vigorously attack'd by a potent Foreign Enemy , that some of the Popish Bigots would not be so backward in submitting themselves under the yoke , and be willing to lose one Eye , provided the Protestants might lose both .

Beside , the Protestants are again sub-divided into two Parties ; T●● difference betw●xt h● Protestants . there being among them some differences concerning several Articles of Faith ; which , by the heat of the Clergy , were widen'd to that degree , that both Parties were brought to the very brink of Ruin . The great number of Estates augments the Distemper , it being next to an impossibility , that among so many , there should not be some , who either prompted by their passions , obstinacy , or for want of Understanding , may not deviate from the true Interest , or be misled by ill Counsellours to act against the same ; so that it would be a miracle to see so many Heads not well united . The Estates are also very unequal in Power ; from whence it often happens , that some of the most Potent are for being like Sovereigns , and therefore being inclin'd rather to act according to their particular Interest and Grandeur than for the Publick , they make little account how they Ruin the less powerful . These therefore , when they see that the Laws cannot protect them , are at last oblig'd to take more care of their own preservation , than of the Publick Liberty , as thinking it indifferent by whom they are oppress'd . Not to mention here , the jealousies which is betwixt the three Colleges of the Empire , and the several pretensions and differences which are among some of the Estates : I could wish that I could find out as easie a remedy against these and some other the like Diseases , as I have enumerated them , and demonstrated their pernicious Consequences .

§ 22 As to the Neighbours of Germany , 〈…〉 the Turks border upon Stiria , Croatia , and Hungary : The two last do not properly belong to Germany , but yet belong to the House of Austria , and are like a Bulwork to it ; so that Germany is much concern'd in the preservation of them . The Turkish Emperour has greater Revenues out of his vast Territories , and perhaps is able to raise a greater number of Men than the Germans can do ; nevertheless he is not so formidable to them : for the Hungarian Wars are very troublesom to the Turks ; T●e Turks . because the Asiatick Forces , and other supplies of Provision and Ammunition , are not without great difficulty carried so far ; neither can these Forces be put into Winter Quarters there , as being not used to so cold a Climate , the neighbouring depopulated Provinces being also not able to maintain them . The Turks also are in continual fear , that , as soon as they have bent their whole Force against Hungary , the Persians may fall upon them on the other side , or some of the Bassa's towards the East Revolt from them . And a well Disciplin'd Army of Germans , will scarce shrink before all the Turkish Forces ; and when Germany is resolv'd to stand the brunt , the Turks will , I believe , qu●ckly be weary of attacking it . Italy . Italy is in no ways to be compared with Germany either for its strength or number of Men , besides that it is divided into several States , by which it is disabled to attack any Foreign State , much less so Potent an Empire , which being possess'd of some Passes leading into Italy , might in time take an opportunity to renew its pretensions upon that Country .

The Switzers are very good Neighbours to Germany , ●h● Swisse . as having neither will nor power to attack it , especially since they are destitute of good Horsemen : Neither can Poland compare its strength with Germany ; Poland . for tho the Poles can bring a great number of Horse into the Field , yet they are not to be compared with the German Horse , much less their Foot , to the German Infantry : wherefore the Poles cannot undertake any considerable and if the Poles should enter into an Alliance with another Prince , and make a diversion to the Germans , by falling upon the back of them , it would not be difficult for the Germans to be even with them ; since they are not well provided with Frontier Places , or any strong Holds within the Country which are able to withstand an Enemy ; whereas in Germany they would meet with Places which would give them sufficient work : And in such a case perhaps the Muscovites might easily be prevailed withal to fall vpon the back of them : but it is not to be supposed , that such a Commonwealth as this will easily attempt an offensive War against its Neighbours ; yet it is of great consequence to Germany , that Poland may not be brought under subjection to the Turks , or any other Power . And these two Nations are able to do one another considerable Services , if they would with their Joint-Forces attack the Turks .

Denmark has no pretensions upon Germany , Denmark . and the best Land-Forces of the Danes being Listed in Germany , their Army may be Ruin'd , only by the Emperours recalling the Germans out of that Service , if they should attempt any thing against the Empire . Neither do I believe that Germany , but especially the Circles of the Higher and Lower Saxony , will be so careless of their own Interest , as to let Denmark become master of Hamborough and Lubeck .

England cannot do any harm to Germany , Englan● . except by disturbing the Trade of Hamburgh ; tho it seems to be the Interest of the English , rather to enjoy the benefit of their Free Trade there . On the other hand , the Germans may do a service to the English against the Hollanders , by Land , whilst these are engag'd with them in a War at Sea .

Holland has neither power nor inclination to attack Germany : Holla●d . For if the Germans should be recall'd out of the Service of the Dutch , their Land-Forces would make but a very indifferent show : Neither can they reap any benefit by making new Conquests ; but it seems rather to be for their purpose to keep fair with the Germans , that in case of a War with their Neighbours , they may make use of their assistance .

Spain cannot pretend to do any considerable mischief to Germany , Sp●i● . if the Head and Members are well united ; but if it should joyn with the Head against the Members it may prove mischievous , especially by the assistance of their Money : but in such a case there would questionless not be wanting some that would oppose its designs .

Swedeland alone is not so powerful as to be in any ways formidable to Germany ; Sweden . neither is this Kingdom for making any more Conquests on that side , since thereby it would lose more of its own strength , than it can gain by them : but on the other hand , it is of great Consequence to Sweden , that the state of Religion and of the Government , remain in the same condition as it was setled in the Westphalian Peace ; neithat Germany be subjected or ruled by any absolute Power .

France has of late made itself so Powerful , France . that this Kingdom alone may do more mischief to the Germans , than any of the rest of their Neighbours . France , in consideration of its Form of Government , has a considerable advantage over Germany ; for the King there has all the best Men , and the Purses of his Subjects at command , and employs them as he thinks fit : But however such is the strength of Germany , that if well united , it need not much dread France ; for Germany is capable of raising as numerous , if not more numerous Armies , than France , and may as easily recruit them : Besides this , the German Souldiers ( every thing duly consider'd ) will scarce turn their backs to the French . There might also be a way found out , for Germany to keep always a sufficient Army on foot against France ; at least it is not easily to be suppos'd , that if France should attack Germany in good earnest , all the rest of Europe would be lookers on : but if Germany be divided within it self , so that either one Party should join with France , whilst some others stand Neuters , till France has devour'd some of the Neighbouring States , then nothing but fatal Consequences can attend it .

CHAP. IX . Of DENMARK .

§ 1. 〈…〉 Kingdom . DENMARK is one of the most antient Kingdoms in Europe , which was Established a great many years before the Birth of our Saviour , but for want of good Histories it cannot be precisely determin'd at what time it had its beginning , nor how long each of its antient Kings Reign'd , or what were there great Deeds . We will not therefore detain the Reader by inserting here there bare Names , but only to touch upon such matters as are with some certainty transmitted to Posterity . Among the most antient Kings , 〈◊〉 III. Frotho III. is most famous , who , 't is said , did Reign just before the Birth of Christ , and was a most Potent Monarch , who Rul'd over Denmark , Sweden , Norway , England , Ireland , and other Neighbouring States . The Borders of his Territories were on the East-side Russia , and on the West-side the Rhine . 'T is also related , that he Conquer'd the Vandals , which lived then in these Countries that now are call'd Pomerania and Mecklenburgh , and that he was the first King that stiled himself King of the Vandals . Gotrick 't is said , did assist Wittekind , the King of the Saxons , against Charles the Great .

Erick is commonly reckon'd to have been the first Christian King of Denmark ( tho some pretend , Eric● I. that his Brother Herald , 846. who Reign'd before him , was the first . ) Under this Kings Reign the Christian Religion was propagated in Denmark by the help of Ansgarius , then Bishop of Bremen ; which afterwards King Gormo II. endeavouring to root out again , was forc'd by the Emperour Henry , sumamed the Bird Ketcher , to grant the free Exercise of the Christian Religion throughout his Kingdom . His Son Harald was attack'd by the Emperour Otto I. from whom the Sea betwixt Jutland and Holland has got the Name of Otten Sound ; because the Emperour there threw in his Lance to mark the utmost Limits of his Expedition . Suen O●tt● . His Son Suen Otto came to the Crown in the year 980. who being taken Prisoner by the Jutins , was redeem'd by the Women , who gave their Gold and Silver Ornaments for his Ransom : In recompence of which he granted them this Privilege , that whereas they used only to have a small Portion in Mony out of their Fathers Inheritance , they for the future should have an equal share with the Males ▪ He also Conquer'd a part of England , and died in the year 1012.

His Son Canut , Canut II. or Cnut II. surnamed the Great , was King of Denma●k , Norway and England , having Conquer'd the latter of these three by force of Arms , tho England did not remain long under the subjection of the Danes ; for after his death , Harald and only Hardiknut Reign'd in England ; after whose death the Danes were again chased out of England . Besides this , Magnus , Son of S. Olaus King of Norway , made himself Master of Denmark ; which Kingdom however , after his death , Sueno II. obtain'd , but he was forc'd to fight for it against Harald Hardrode , then King of Norway . He died in the year 1074. Him succeeded his Sons Harald VII . ( who Reign'd but two years ) and Canute IV. This King did give great Power to the Bishops in Denmark ▪ and granted the Tenths of all the Revenues of the Country to the Clergy . At which the Jutes being exasperated , 1087. slew him at Oden Sea ; but the Clergy as an acknowledgement of his Favours bestowed upon them , placed him in the number of Saints , and his memory was afterwards celebrated with full Cups at their Feasts , by those who call'd themselves the Knutgylden , from him . His Brother Olaus IV. succeeded him , who died in the year 1095. and after him Reigned his Brother Erick II. who took Jutin , at that time a great City in Pomerania . He died in the Ille of Cyprus in his Pilgrimage to Jerusalem .

§ . 2. After his death the whole Kingdom was in great Confusion , especially when three at once fought for the Crown , viz. Sueno III , Canute VI , and Waldemar I. These , after they had waged wars together for many years , did at last agree to divide the Kingdom into three parts : but Canute having been assassinated by Sueno , and Sueno ▪ again having been slain in a Battel against Wald●mar , Waldemar I. he got the whole Kingdom into his possession He subdued the Rugians and Vandals ▪ 1157. who had hitherto proved very mischievous to Denmark ; he also destroyed the City of Julin . 1164. 'T is related that he laid the first Foundation of the City of Dantzwick : and under the Reign of this King , Absalom Bishop of Roshild first began to build the City of Copenhagen . Waldemar died in the year 1182. Canute VI. Him succeeded his Son Canute VI. who waged great Wars against the Vandals , and at last forced their Princes to be his Vassals ; taking upon himself the Title of King of the Vandals or Slaves . He took from Adolf Earl of Holstein , among other places , the City of Hamburgh , which however twenty seven years after did shake off the Danish Yoke . He having also conquered Esthonia and Livonia , the Christian Faith was established in these Countries by his means . He died in the Year 1202.

After him reigned his Brother Waldemar II. who at the beginning was a very fortunate and potent Prince , and had under his Subjection , besides Denmark , the Countries of Esthonia , Livonia , Curland , Prussia , Pomerania , Rugen , Meck●enburgh , Holstein , Stormar , Ditmarsen and Wagern , as also the Cities of Lubeck and Lauenburgh . But he lost a great part of them again by the following occasion : Henry Earl of Swerin having undertaken a journey to the Holy Land , had committed , during his absence , his Lady and Country to the care of Waldemar : but having been informed , after his return , that the King had lived in Adultery with his Lady ; he , to revenge this Affront , took him Prisoner by stratagem , and after he had kept him three years in prison dismist him , making him pay for his ransom the sum of 45000 marks of fine Silver . The Countries of Mecklenburgh and Pomerania , and the Cities of Lubeck and Duntzwick taking hold of this opportunity , revolted from Waldemar ; Adolf Earl of Shauenburgh took from him Holstein and Stormar ; the Knights of the Cross took Esthonia and Livonia . And endeavouring to recover these Countries , he was vanquished in a Battel fought near Bornhove , 1227. by the Earl of Shauenburgh . Yet he recovered Reval and Esthonia ; and died in the year 1241.

§ . Erick V. 13. His Son Erick V. succeeded him in the Kingdom , tho he had also given some parts of it to his other Sons ; viz. to Abel , Sleswick ; to Canute , Blecking●n ; and to Christopher , Laland and Falster . These were each of them for being Sovereigns in these Countries ; but Erick pretending that they ought to be his Vassals , there were great Commotions in Denmark , till Erick was miserably murthered by his Brother Abel ; Ab●l. and Abel after he had reigned two years was slain by the Friselanders and Ditmarsians . 1250. Whom succeeded his Brother Christopher I. Aganist this King the Archbishop of Lunden raised abundance of Troubles , 1252. and the King having imprisoned him , Christ●ph . I. he was by the rest of the Bishops and Clergy excommunicated , and with him the whole Kingdom . And at last the King was by them poisoned , 1259. as 't is thought , with the Host .

After him reigned his Son Erick VI. Erick VI. who was at Variance with the Bishops , and engaged in Wars against Sweden and Norway ; at last he was taken Prisoner in a Battel by Erick Duke of Holstein , 1286. and was barbarously murthered by some of the great Men of the Kingdom . Erick VII . He left the Crown to his Son Erick VII , who immediately , in the first year of his Reign , had great contests with the King of Norway , who had given protection to to the Murtherers of his Father . He also had some other Differences with some of the neighbouring States , and died in the year 1319. Him succeeded his Brother Christopher II , Christoph . II who got his Son crowned in his Life time . This King was banished the Kingdom by his Subjects , who , under pretence of being oppressed with Taxes , elected in his stead Waldemar Duke of Sleswick their King . But they grew also quickly weary of him , and recalled Christopher , who afterwards in a battel fought against this Waldemar lost his Son Erick Under 1332. the Reign of this King , Schonen being sorely oppressed by the Holsteiners , who were in Possession of it , surrendred itself to Magnus King of Sweden : And John Duke of Holstein , perceiving that he could not maintain it by force , sold all his Right and Title to it , for 70000 Marks ▪ fine silver . Under the Reign of this King , Denmark was torn into so many pieces , that very few places were left to the King . He died in the year 1333. After his death there was an Interregnum in Denmark during the space of seven years : In the mean time the Holsteiners had brought the greatest part of Denmark under their Subjection ; till the Danes making an Insurrection against them , endeavour'd to chase them out of Denmark and for this purpose call'd Waldemar the Son of Christopher II. ( who had been Educated at the Court of the Emperour Lewis the Bavarian ) into the Kingdom .

§ 4. Wald. III. Waldemar III. did somwhat restore the decay'd State of the Kingdom , having partly forc'd and partly bought the Holsteiners out of Denmark : He sold Hisponia and Reval , to the Knights of the Cross , for 28000 Marks , fine silver ; which sum he bestow'd most upon a Journey which he undertook into the Holy Land . But he got Schonen again from Magnus Sameck the then King of Sweden , by fair promises ; and by an agreement made betwixt him and Albert , King of Swedeland , Gotland was also surrendred to him , and some other places belonging at that time to Sweden . He was frequently at Wars with the Hanse Towns , and died in the year 1375.

After him Reign'd his Grandson Olaus VI. Olaus VI. born of his Daughter Margaret and Hacquin , King of Norway . During his Minority the Mother had the supreme Administration of Affairs . Having after his Fathers death obtained the Crown of Norway , he laid also claim to the Kingdom of Sweden , because his Father was Son of Magnus Sameck , King of Sweden ; but he died young .

In his stead the Danes and Norwegians received for their Queen Margaret , his Mother ; and she having declar'd Erick Pomeran , her Sisters Daughters Son , her Associate in the Government , enter'd into a War against Albert King of Sweden . But the Swedes being in general dissatisfied with their King , deserted him , acknowledging Margaret for their Queen . Albert fought a Battel against Margaret , but was defeated and taken Prisoner with his Son ; whom Margaret did not release till after seven years Imprisonment , under condition that he should either pay 60000 Marks , fine silver , for his Ransom , or else resign his Pretensions to the Kingdom of Sweden ; and he having perform'd the last , Margaret caused Eric Pomeran to be Crowned King of Sweden . In the year next following the Estates of all the three Northern Kingdoms assembled at Calmar , 1396. where Erick having been declared their King , an agreement was made among them , that these three Kingdoms for the future should be Rul'd by one King . Margaret , who had been an extraordinary good Queen to Denmark , died in the year 1412. After whose death Erick was sole King over these three Kingdoms ; but he was in continual broils with the Holsteiners ( who were assisted by the Hanse Towns ) concerning the Dutchy of Sleswick ; which differences were at last composed . He surrendred to his Cousins , Eric Pomerar . the Dukes of Pomerania , the Island of Rugen , which had been a considerable time under Danish Subjection . 1438. In the mean time the Swedes were grown very discontented , because Erick did not Govern them according to his Coronation Oath , and oppress'd them by his Foreign Officers ; which oblig'd them to stand up for the Defence of their Liberty . The Danes also , seeing that he was very careless of the Affairs of the Kingdom , and did always live in Gotland , did withdraw themselves from his Obedience , alledging , among other matters , that because he had been endeavouring to Establish his Cousin Bogislaus Duke of Pomerania in his Throne , in his life time , he had thereby violated their Right of a Free Election : Christopher . And having chosen in his stead Christopher Duke of Bavaria , 1439. Erick's Sisters Son , he was Deposed , and retired into Pomerania , where he ended his life . Christopher Reigned till the year 1448. with whose Reign the Danes were very well satisfied .

§ . Chris●ian I. 5. After his Death the Danes made an offer of that Crown to Adolf Duke of Sleswick and Earl of Holstein ; But he being very antient and infirm refused to accept of it , and recommended to them Christian Earl of Oldenburgh , his Sisters Son , whom both the Danes and Norwegians declared their King ; and in this Family these two Crowns have remained ever since , by a continual succession . This King , soon after , began a War with the Swedes ( who had made one Charles Cnutson their King ) because they would have driven the deposed King Erick out of Gotland ; but King Christian , coming to his assistance , made himself Master of that Island . Besides this , some of the Swedish Nobility , who were dissatisfied with Charles Cnutson , having sided with Christian , the War began to be carried on very vigorously betwixt these two Nations . In this War the Archbishop of Vpsal did attack Charles with such Success , that he obliged him to retire into Prussia , and Christian was crowned King of Sweden . 1458. But the Swedes being again dissatisfied with Christian , recalled Charles Cnutson when the War began afresh : and notwithstanding Charles Cnutson died in the year 1470 , 1463. and Christian came with a great Army into Swedeland , yet could he not maintain himself in the Throne , his Forces having been defeated near Stockholm . In the year 1471 the Emperor Frederick III. gave to him in Fief , Ditmarsen , as also to the Country of Holstein the Title of a Dukedom . He married his Daughter Margaret to James III. King of Scotland , giving her for a Dowry the Orkney Islands and Hetland , which had hitherto been dependent on the Kingdom of Norway . He died in the year 1481. In whose stead the Danes and Norwegians chose his Son John their King , who divided the Dukedom of Holstein with his Brother Frederick . This King John after he had reigned in peace for a con●iderable time , John . did at last enter into a War against Sweden , and having defeated the Dalekarls , forced Steenure the Governour to surrender himself and the City of Stockholm , and was crowned King of Sweden . 1497. But in the year 1501 , he was miserably and shamefully beaten by the Ditmarsians , whom he would have brought under his Subjection , and afterwards Steen Sture also drove him out of Sweden . He was in continual broils with him and his Successor Suant Sture , who were assisted by the Lubeckers , till these Differences were at last composed ; soon after which he died .

§ . 1513. 6. Him succeeded his Son Christian II , who drew upon him the Hatred of the Danes , Christian II. partly because he entertained a Woman of mean birth in the Netherlands , whose name was Duivecke , to be his Mistress , and was strangely led by the Nose by her Mother Sigibirta , a crafty old Woman ; partly because he had caused Torber Oxe , the Governour of the Castle of Copenhagen , to be , as 't is thought , unjustly executed . In the mean time great Differences were arisen in Sweden betwixt Steen Sture the younger and Gustave Trolle the Archbishop of Vpsal , the first having destroyed the Castle of Steka , which belonged to the latter . King Christian coming to the Assistance of the Archbishop took him along with him into Denmark , where they laid the Design against Swedeland . A Decree therefore was obtained from the Pope , wherein he having condemned the Swedes to undergo great Penalties for the violence offered to Gustave Trolle . King Christian , to put this Decree in execution , sent his Forces into Sweden , where Steen Sture being slain in an Engagement , the whole Kingdom was put into Confusion by his Death : And King Christian , coming at last in person , forced Christina , the Widow of Steen Sture , to surrender the City of Stockholm . At last a general Amnesty having been published first , Crowned K. of Swede● . he was crowned King of Sweden . 1520. But when the Swedes thought themselves most secure , he caused some of the chief Men , under pretence of the former Violences committed upon Gustavus Trolle , to be executed by the Hangman , and committed besides great Cruelties . In the mean time , Gustavus Erickson , who had been a Prisoner in Denmark , having made his Escape arrived in Sweden ; and with the assistance of the Dalekarls , whom he had stirred up , entirely drove the Danes out of Sweden , which ever since has maintained its Liberty against the Danes . By this time the Hatred of the Danes against Christian was mightily encreased ; and the Jutes having first of all withdrawn themselves from their Obedience to him , 〈…〉 of his own Kingd it put him into such a Consternation , that he retreated with his Wife and Children into the Netherlands . The Danes chose in his stead his Uncle Frederick Duke of Holstein for their King . Christian , having raised some Land-forces , did endeavour to regain the Throne , but they were dispersed again . Charles V. also , his Brother in law , was so intangled in the War with France , that he could not send him sufficient Succours . At last he came with a Fleet into Norway , where he surrendred himself to Dnut Gyldenstern , who promised him security . But King Frederick , alleging that he was not obliged to keep that promise , made him a Prisoner , and sent him to the Castle of Sunderburgh . But having resigned his Title to the Kingdom , 1532. he was removed to the Castle of Callenburgh , 1546. where he died . 1559.

§ 7. Frederick I. Frederick I. entred into an Alliance with Gustavus King of Sweden , and the Hanse Towns , against the deposed King Christian ; and forced the Cities of Copenhagen and Malmoe , which adhered to Christian , to surrender themselves to him . He also granted great Privileges to the Nobility , and died in the year 1533 , the year after he had made Christian II. his Prisoner . Him succeeded his Son Christian III. Christian III who met with great Opposition at first from Christopher Earl of Oldenburgh and the Lubeckers , who pretended to restore the imprisoned Christian to the Throne , and had brought several Provinces over to their side ; but he at last surmounted these Difficulties , with the Assistance of Gustavus King of Sweden , and made himself Master of Copenhagen . And because the Bishops had been all along against him , 1556. they were excluded from the general Agreement ; and having been deposed in the same year , the Protestant Religion was at the same time established in Denmark and Norway . He reigned very peaceably after that time , and died in the year 1558.

§ 8. Fred●rick II His Son and Successor Frederick II. subdued the Ditmarsians : then he entred into a War against Erick King of Sweden , 1560. which was carried on with great losses on both sides for the space of nine years : at last a Peace was concluded at Stetin , by the mediation of the Emperour , 1570. and the Kings of France and Poland . He Reign'd afterwards very peaceably in Denmark , till the year 1588. when he died .

Under the Reign also of his Son Christian IV. Christian IV. the Kingdom was in great Tranquility , till the year 1611. when he attack'd the Swedish King Charles IX . and took from him Calmar and Elfsburgh . 1613. But he made Peace with Gustavus Adolph , the Son of Charles ; by virtue of which he restor'd these places unto him , in consideration of a good Sum of Money . 1625. He was entangled in the Civil Wars of Germany ; for he having been made General of the Circle of the Lower Saxony , he thereby came to be engag'd in a War against the Emperour : But this War proved very disadvantageous to him , he having receiv'd a great overthrow near King Luttern , and being oblig'd not only to quit Germany , but the Imperialists also enter'd Holstein and Jutland itself : Yet he recover'd all again by virtue of a Peace made at Lubeck , 1629. except that he lost the advantage of some Ecclesiastical Possessions in Germany , which he intended for his Sons . When Swedeland was afterwards engag'd in the German Wars , he offer'd his mediation betwixt them and the Emperour , in hopes thereby to recover his losses of the Ecclesiastical Possessions , and to prevent that the Swedes might not get a firm footing in Germany . In the mean while he was very vexatious to the Swedes , endeavouring by all ways and means to stop the career of their Victories in Germany , and to spoil their Trade at home ; till at last the Swedes being sorely vex'd that their Ships were continually detain'd and confiscated in the Sound , did resolve to put an end to these inconveniencies ; and after they had let the Danes know , that they would no longer suffer these Injuries , fell with an Army into Holstein and Jutland , and at last also into Schonen . 1643. In this War the Danes were great losers both by Sea and Land , but by the extraordinary Valour of their King they maintain'd themselves , 1645. till by the mediation of France , a Peace was concluded at Bromsebroo ; by virtue of which the Swedes got Gothland , Osel , and Jemperland , and Holland was given them as a Pledge for the space of thirty years . The Hollanders also taking hold of this opportunity , did regulate the Toll of the Sound , which hitherto having been raised at pleasure , had been very troublesome to them . He died in the year 1648.

§ 9. Fr●●erick III Him succeeded his Son Frederick III. who upon the perswasions of the Hollanders , 1657. attack'd the Swedes , promising himself great success against them , War with Sweden . at that time when he supposed that their King Charles Gustavus had quite weaken'd his strength against the Poles ; but the Swedish King came upon a sudden with an Army into Holstein and Jutland , and among others , took the Fortress of Fredericksudde by storm ; and there happening an extraordinary hard Frost at the beginning of the year 1658. he march'd over the Ice , first into Funen , where he surprised the Danish Troops ; from thence taking his way over Largeland , Laland and Falster , into Zealand . This prodigious success obliged King Frederick to conclude a Peace with him at Roshild , by virtue of which , besides some other advantages , he surrendred to the Swedes , Holland , Bleckingen , Schonen , Bornholm , Bahus , and Drontheim in Norway .

But King Charles Gustavus being inform'd , that by the perswasions of the Emperour , the Elector of Brandenburgh , and the Hollanders , the Danes had resolv'd to renew the War , as soon as the Swedes had left the Country , or should be again engaged in a War with Germany or Poland , he resolv'd to be beforehand with them , and returning into the Isle of Zealand , took Cronenburgh , 〈…〉 C●penhagen . and Besieg'd Copenhagen by Sea and Land . In the mean while the Dutch sent a Fleet to Relieve Copenhagen , against whom the Swedes fought with great bravery : But in the year next following , the Swedes did in vain storm Copenhagen , 1659. and besides this , lost the Battel in Funen ▪ Bornholm revolted , and Druntheim was retaken . And tho the Danes endeavour'd to carry on the War against the Swedes , hoping to have now after the death of their King Charles Gustavus , met with an opportunity to revenge themselves for their former losses ; yet acccording to a Project concluded upon by France , England and Holland , A Peace conclu●ed . a Peace was made near Copenhagen , almost upon the same Conditions with that concluded formerly at Roshild , except that Bornholm and Druntheim remained in the possession of the Danes ; in lieu of which some Lands were assigned to the Swedes in Schonen .

A Peace being thus concluded , Th● King ●eclared absolute an t●e Crown heredi●ar● . the King , at the Dyet held at Copenhagen , was declared an absolute Sovereign , and the Crown Hereditary ; whereby the great Privileges of the Nobility were abolished , and a new Form of Government introduced , where the whole Management of Affairs depends absolutely on the King's pleasure .

This King died in the year 1670. Christian . V. Him succeeded his Son Christian V. who after he had put his Affairs into a good Posture , entred into an Alliance with the Emperor , Holland and their Confederates . And seeing that the Swedes had been worsted in the Country of Brandenburgh , he hoped to have met with a good opportunity to break with Sweden . 1675. He began therefore with the Duke of Holstein ; who , not foreseeing the Design , came to him at Rensburgh , whom he forced to quit all his Advatanges which he had obtained by the Peace of Roshild , and to surrender into his hands the Fortress of Tonningen , which he caused to be demolished , and afterwards took Wismar from the Swedes .

In the year next following he entred Schonen , where he took Helsingburgh , H● mak●th War upon Swed●n . Landscrone and Christianstad , as also the Isle of Gotland , with little Resistance . But he having detach'd some Troops to invest Halmstad , they were surprized by the King of Sweden , who routed them , and such as were not slain were all made Prisoners . Not long after , the whole Danish Army was beaten out of the field in a bloody Battel fought near Lunden . In the year 1677. King Christian besieged Malmoe , but having miscarried in a Storm which he made upon the place , he was forced to raise the Siege ; and soon after received another Overthrow in a Battel fought near Landscrone betwixt him and Charles King of Sweden . In the Year next following the Danes were obliged to raise the Siege of Bahus , and to surrender Christianstadt , which reduced to Extremity by Famine : but at Sea they had better Success ; A Peace . yet , by virtue of a Peace made betwixt them , they restored all such places as they had taken from the Swedes .

§ 10. The G●nius o●t is N●tion . It is evident , out of antient History , That this Nation has been formerly very warlike : but in our age the Danes have lost much of their antient Glory , because the Nobility have been rather for enjoying their Revenues in Plenty and Quietness , than for undergoing the fatigues of War , and the Commonalty have followed their Example . This may also perhaps be alleged for a reason , that they having seldom been engaged in any Wars , but with Sweden , ( except that Christian IV. made war in Germany , which however was carried on chiefly by German Souldiers ) which could not be of any long Continuance , the Danes often wanted opportunity to keep themselves in exercise ; especially since they had the conveniency of making use of the Germans , whom they listed for money : and the number of Inhabitants seem'd to be but proportionable to the Country , which is of no great extent . Since the King has been declared Soveraign , all means have been employed to improve the Military force of the Nation ; but it seems that the National Forces , without the help of the Germans , will not be of any great Consequence , as to Land-service . Neither is it the King's interest to put his Nobility upon Martial Exploits , or that they should grow famous in War , for fear they should make an Effort to recover their former Privileges .

The Norwegians undergo all sorts of hardship with more Courage and Vigour , The Norwegians . whereunto they are inured by their Climate and Air. But the Danes , since they have been Masters of Norway , have always endeavoured to keep under this Nation , by taking from them all opportunities of exerting their vigour , and there are very few left of the antient Nobility in Norway . Yet the Norwegians are now adays very good Seamen , and the Dutch make good use of them in Sea-service : and a great many of the Inhabitants of North-holland , where they are addicted to Fishing , were originally of Norway .

§ 11. Nature of the Soil . The country of Denmark is of no great extent , yet it is generally very Fertile , and fit both for Tillage and Pasturage ; for a great number of Oxen and Horses are yearly Transported out of Denmark to other places . And a considerable quantity of Corn is sent out of Denmark into Norway and Island . The Seas near Denmark are pretty well stock'd with Fish , which however are rather for the benefit of the Inhabitants , than for exportation . There are little or no Manufactories there , the Inhabitants being not fitted for such works ; neither is there any Commodities fit for Exportation in great quantities . On the other hand , the Danes are oblig'd to Import Wine , Salt , good Beer , and Woollen Manufactury for Cloaths . They have begun to bring Spices themselves out of the East-Indies , where they have a small Fort upon the Coast of Cormandel . The Toll , which is paid by Foreigners in the Sound in ready money , is a very good Revenue in Denmark . Which is the reason why the Danes can scarce forgive the Swedes , that they do not pay this Tributary Toll to Denmark ▪ Norway is for the most part a very raw Country , yet it produces several Commodities fit for exportation , viz. dry'd and salted Fish in great quantity , Timber , Board , Masts , Tar , Pitch , and the like . There are also in Norway , Silver , Copper , and Iron Mines . But it produces not Corn sufficient in quantity for the maintenance of its Inhabitants , nor to brew Beer ; besides it wants also the same Commodities which are wanting in Denmark . As for its situation it s very commodious , to Export and Import Merchandises to and from other Sea-Coasts in Europe . Island is stock'd with Fish , some salted Flesh , and very good Down Feathers , which the Inhabitants are fain to exchange for such Commodities as are , besides Fish and Flesh , requisite for the sustenence and convenience of Life . The Fenock Islands do for the most part live on their Sheep and Fish . Besides that , Denmark cannot raise a considerable Army of its Natives , I●s defects . this is also a great weakness to this Kingdom , that not only Norway and Denmark are separated by the Sea , and cannot keep correspondency together but by that way ; but also that this Kingdom is divided into so many Islands ; so that if an Enemy once becomes Master at Sea , he must needs prove very troublesom to Denmark .

§ 12. N●ighbours of Denmark . As to the Neighbours of Denmark , it Borders on one side upon Germany ; for Holstein , which belongs to the present Royal Ramily , is a Fief of the Empire . And tho the Land Forces of Denmark do not come to any comparison with those of Germany , Germany . and Jutland lies quite open on that side ; yet the Islands are very secure from the Germans , who are not provided with Shipping , except it should happen that the great and lesser Belt should both be frozen , which happens very rarely . Neither is there any great probability that these two States should differ , except the pretensions upon Hamborough , which the King of Denmark will not easily let fall , should furnish an occasion for War . And to speak truly , it is so delicious a morsel , that it may easily provoke an Appetite . But it will be a very difficult task for the King of Denmark to attain his aim by open force , except there should happen a very strange juncture of Affairs , or that the inward Divisions , or else by treachery , this City should give an occasion for its Ruin . In the mean while it is not easily to be supposed , that the Neighbouring German Princes should suffer that a City of so great Consequence should fall into the hands of a Foreign Prince . In fine , it is of vast Consequence to Denmark , to hold a good understanding with Germany , since from thence it must draw the greatest part of its Land-Forces , wherewith to defend itself against Swedeland .

With the Swedes Denmark had been in continual Broils for a considerable time ; Sw●●en . and it seems that there is an old grudge and animosity betwixt these two Nations , arising chiefly hence , that the Danes have formerly always endeavour'd to make themselves Masters of Sweden , and to reduce this Kingdom into the same condition as they had done Norway . Besides , that afterwards they have made it their business , by ruining their Shipping and Trade , to prevent the growing Greatness of Sweden : But Sweden has always vigorously defended itself , and in latter times has gain'd great advantages upon Denmark ; for the Swedes have not only recover'd Schonen , and secured West Gothland , by the Fortress of Bahus ; but they have also a way open into Jutland , out of their Provinces in Germany . On the other hand , the Danes have made it their business hitherto , by making Alliances with the Enemies of Sweden , to get from them these Advantages . But if we consider , that these two Kingdoms are now divided by their natural Bounds to preserve which , France , England and Holland seem to be mutually concern'd ; and that as in human probability Denmark cannot conquer or maintain itself in Swedeland ; so the other States of Europe , are not likely to suffer , that Sweden should become Master of Denmark : It seems therefore most convenient , that these two Kingdoms should maintain a good understanding , and be a mutual security to one another against their Enemies .

From Holland Denmark may expect real assistance , Holland . in case it should be in danger of being Conquered ; since the prosperity of Holland depends partly on the free Trade of the Baltic ; and if one should become Master both of Sweden and Denmark , he would questionless keep these Passages closer than they are now . But the Danes also are sensible enough , that the Hollanders will not engage themselves any further in their behalf , than to keep the ballance even , for fear they should with an increase of Power , attempt hereafter , to raise the Toll in the Sound at pleasure . But as long as Holland sides with Denmark , England . England will not be fond of the Danish Party , but rather declare for the other side ; for the preservation of Denmark , and the Trade in the Baltic , is not of so great consequence to England , as it is to Holland .

The Muscovites may prove very serviceable to Denmark against Sweden : Th● Muscovites . yet cannot the Danes make any great account upon an Alliance with them ; because it is very difficult to maintain a Correspondency with them , especially if the Poles should declare for Sweden : Besides that , the Muscovites , as soon as they have obtained their aim , commonly have but little regard to Alliances , or the Interest of their Allies . Denmark can have no great reliance upon Poland , Poland . except that Crown should be engag'd in a War against Sweden . France . France has hitherto shewn no great concern for Denmark , because it has always been in Alliance with its Enemies ; yet France would not willingly see it ruin'd , because no State of Europe would desire the two Northern Kingdoms should be under the Subjection of one Prince : But I cannot see any reason , why an offensive Alliance with Denmark , should be profitable to France . Spain is more likely to wish well to Denmark , than to assist it , except it should happen , that Swedeland was engaged in a War against the House of Austria , or any other Allie of Spain .

CHAP. X. Of POLAND .

§ 1. THE POLES , Origine of the Kingd . of Poland . who anciently were called Samartians , and afterwards Slavonians , derived their Name from the Nature of the Country which they possess ; which lies most upon a Plain , for Pole signifies in their language a Plain ; tho some are of opinion that the Word Polacki , is as much as to say , the Posterity of Lechus . This Nation formerly did inhabit nearer to the Country of the Tartars ; but after vast Numbers out of Germany entred the Roman Provinces , their places were supplied by the nations living behind them . And it seems that Poland being in the same manner left by its Inhabitants , which were then Venedi or Wends , they made room for the next that took their Place . These then , as 't is said , having taken possession of this Country about the year 550 , did , Lechus . under the Conduct of Lechus , lay there the Foundation of a new State . Lechus resided at Gnicsen , being encouraged thereunto by an Eagles Nest which he found there , and taking it as a good Omen , put an Eagle into the Arms of the new Commonwealth , giving to that City the name of Gnicsen , which in the Polish Language signifies a Nest . This Nation first setled it self in that part of the Country , which now goes by the name of the great and lesser Poland ; neither did their Limits extend any further , tho since that time they are mightily encreased .

§ 2. Twelve Vayvods or Governours . The first Governours of this Nation did not assume to themselves the Title of Kings , but only that of Dukes ; and the first form of Government was very inconstant : for after the Race of Lechus was extinguished ( tho it is uncertain how many of them , and for how long a time they Ruled , or what were their Atchievments ) twelve Governours , which in their Language are called Vayvods , did administer the Government , who having at first regulated and refined this barbarous People by good Laws and Constitutions , at last were divided among themselves . 700. Wherefore the Poles elected for their Prince one Cracus , Cracus . who having restored the Commonwealth to its former State , built the City of Cracovia , so called after his own Name , which he made his place of residence . Lechus II. Whose youngest Son Lechus II. to obtain the Principality , murthered his elder Brother ; but as soon as the Fact was discovered , he was banished the Country . After him ruled a Virgin , whose Name was Venda , Venda . the only Daughter left of the Children of Cracus , 750. who having vanquished one Ritiger a German Prince that pretended Mariage to her out of a blind Superstition , drowned herself in the River of Weixel . After her death the administration of the Government returned again to the Governours or Vayvods , which continued for some time , till the Poles elected again for their Prince a Goldsmith called Premislus , who is also called Lescus I. Lescus I. because he had by a Stratagem defeated the Moravians , who had made an Irruption into Poland . But he leaving no Issue behind him a Horse Race was instituted , with condition that the Victor should succeed in the Government . One of the Competitours had laid Iron Hooks in the Ground , by which means the others Horses having been ●amed he was the first that came to the Goal , but the Fraud being discovered he was killed upon the spot . In the mean while a certain poor Fellow on foot had run the Race and was the next to the Impostor , whom the Poles declared their Prince . 776. His name was Lescus II. and as some say , was slain in the Wars against Charles the Great . Lescus II. Him succeeded his Son Lescus III. 804. who having appeased Charles the Great , Lescus III. with Presents , made Peace with him , either as an unequal Allie , or else by acknowledging himself his Vassal . Popiel I. He left Poland to his Son Popiel , whom he had begot in Wedlock ; but to his natural Sons he gave the neighbouring Countries of Pomerania , Mack , Ca●●ubia , with some others . Popiel II. Him succeeded his Son Popiel II. an ill man , who upon the perswasion of his Lady murthered his Father's Brothers , 't is reported that out of their dead Bodies came forth Mice , which devoured Popiel with his Wife and Children .

§ 3. 820. After his Death there was an Interregnum full of troubles , till the Poles declared Piastus , Piastus . a Country-fellow born at Crusswitz , their Prince , from whom ever since such of the Natives as obtained the Royal Dignity , were called Piasti . His Posterity has reigned for a long time in Poland , from whom also descended the race of the Dukes of Lignitz and Brieg in Silesia , which is but lately extinguished . 'T is said that he was 120 Years old before he died . Zicmovitus . His Son Zicmovitus began his Reign in the Year 895. a Warlike and brave Prince ; whom succeeded his Son Lescus IV. Lescus IV. a good and peaceable Prince . Much of the same temper was his Son Zicmovistus , 902. who began to Reign in the Year 921. Zicmovistus . This Prince had but one Son , who being blind was in the seventh Year of his Age ( in which Year , according to the Custom of those times , his Head was to be shaved , and he to receive his Name ) restored to his Sight , which was then taken for an Omen , that he should be enlightened with the Christian Faith . Micislaus 〈◊〉 His Name was Micislaus I. and began his Reign in the Year 962. He having a great many Wives and no Children , occasioned in him a desire to turn Christian , for some Germans representing to him , that if he left the Heathenish Superstitions he would certainly beget Children ; he was perswaded by them to remove his Heathenish Wives , which he did , and married Dambrateca , the Daughter of Bogislaus Duke of Bohemia . Before he married her , he was baptized himself , and first introduced the Christian Religion into Poland , 965. as also that custom which has obtained since there , that at the time when the Gospel is read in the Mass , the Men half draw their Cymetars to signify that they were ready to fight for the Christian Faith .

§ 4. 999. Him succeeded his Son Boleslaus Chrobry , who was by the Emperour Otto III. Boleslaus Chrobry , the first King of Poland . dignified with the Title of King , who also remitted unto him all the Pretensions which the former Emperours had upon Poland ; and this in consideration for the kind entertainment which he had received from Boleslaus in his Pilgrimage to the Grave of Albart Bishop of Gnicsen , which being then very famous for some Miracles , was visited by the Emperour to fulfil his Vow which he had made during a precedent Sickness . This first King of Poland behaved himself very bravely in his Wars against the Red Russians , the Bohemians , Saxons and Prussians . He also instituted twelve Senators as his Assistants in the administration of the Government . Miccislaus II. But his Son Miccislaus lost for the most part his Father's Conquests , Moravia having among the rest been taken from him by the Bohemians . He began his Reign in the Year 1025. and died in the Year 1034. leaving but one Son behind him , whose Name was Casimir , Casimir I. who being an Infant , his Mother Rixa administred the Government for a while . But the Poles being dissatisfied with her , she fled with her Son into Germany , who in his Journey in France , assumed the Order and Habit of a Monk . During his absence , there were great Disturbances in Poland , Maslaus having about that time made himself Master of Masuria , which for a long time after , remained independent of the Kingdom of Poland . At last the Poles prevailed upon Casimir , to leave his Monastery and accept the Crown . And to perswade the Pope to absolve him from his Vow , they promised , that for each Head , except those of the Nobility and Clergy , they would contribute yearly a Farthing towards the maintaining of a perpetual burning Lamp in the Church of St. Peter in Rome , and cause their Heads to be shaved above their Ears like Monks . After he came to the Crown he beat Maslaus and the Prussians , and restored the Kingdom to its former tranquility .

His Son Boleslaus Surnamed the Hardy , Boleslaus the Hardy . did at first wage War against his Neighbours the Prussians , Bohemians and Russians with great Success ; 1058. but afterwards giving himself over to all manner of Debauchery , and having been checked for that reason by Stanislaus the Bishop of Cracau , who also at last excommunicated him , he cut him to pieces before the Altar . Then he was excommunicated by the Pope , and perceiving himself to be hated by every body , left the Kingdom , and at last murthered himself .

§ 5. Vladislaus 1082. Him succeeded his Brother Vladislaus , who standing in fear of the Pope , would not at first take upon him the Title of King . He met with great Troubles both at home and abroad , which however he overcame at last . Boleslaus III. Him succeeded his Son Boleslaus III. a brave Souldier , 1103. who obtained a signal Victory over the Emperour Henry V. in a Battle fought in the Dogsfield near Breslau . There was never a Prince in Poland more Famous for Military Atchievements than himself ; it being related of him , that he fought forty five Battles all with good Success , except the last of all , fought against the Red Russians , which was lost by the Cowardise of the Vayvod of Cracovia , unto whom the King for a recompence sent a Hare-skin and Spinning-Wheel , which so troubled him , that he hanged himself : But the King also was so troubled at this Defeat , that he died of grief , 1139. leaving four Sons behind him . Vladislaus II. Among whom Vladislaus II. obtained a great part of the Kingdom with the Name of a Prince , yet the other Brothers also shared several great Provinces among themselves , according to their Father's last Will . This occasioned great Divisions and Civil Wars betwixt these Brothers ; and Vladislaus , who pretended to dispossess the rest , was himself obliged to quit the Country . Boleslaus IV. After him Boleslaus Crispus his Brother was made Prince of Poland , 1146. who was forced to wage War against the Emperour Conrade III. and Frederick I. who would have restored Vladislaus . At last a Peace was concluded betwixt them , by Vertue of which , Poland remained to Boleslaus , but he was obliged to surrender Silesia , which was then dependent on Poland , to Vladislaus , which being afterwards divided into a great many Dukedoms , at last fell to the Crown of Bohemia . This Boleslaus also received a great overthrow from the Prussians , his Army having by the treachery of a Guide been mis●ed into the Moors and Boggs . Him succeeded his Brother Miccislaus Senior , Miccislaus III. but he was deposed for Male-administration . 1174. Him succeeded his Brother Casimir , Casimir . 11780. who is only famous for that he chastised the Prussiant . He died in the year 1194. Lescus V. His Son Lescus Surnamed the White , was fain to contend with the banished Miccislaus for the Kingdom with various Success , till Miccislaus died . 1213. Whose Son Vladislaus also raised some Disturbances against him for a while , till at last he was forced to leave him in the quiet possession of Poland . The first Inroads o● t●e Tartars . Under the Reign of this Lescus the Tartars made the first In-road into Russia , and have ever since proved very troublesome and mischievous to Poland . This Lescus was forced to wage War with Sventopolek , whom he had constituted Governour of Pomerania . He having made himself Duke of Pomerania did dismember it from the Kingdom of Poland . Conrade , also the Brother of Lescus had got the possession of Masovia and Cusavia , who being not strong enough to defend himself against the Prussians , who were fallen into his Country , he called in the Knights of the Cross , who were then by the Saracens driven out of Syria . Unto these he surrendred the Country of Culm , under condition , that such places as by their help should be conquered in Prussia , should be divided betwixt them ; which afterwards proved to be the occasion of great Wars betwixt them and Poland .

To Lescus succeeded his Son Boleslaus , B●lesiaus V. Surnamed the Chast , 1226. under whose Reign the Tartars committed prodigious Barbarities in Poland , and from thence made an In-road into Silesia , where in a Battel fought near Lignitz , they slew so many of the Inhabitants , that they filled nine great Sacks with the Ears which they had cut off . His Reign was besides this full of intestine Troubles . Him succeeded his Cousin Lescus , L●scus VI. 1279. Surnamed the Black , who was very Fortunate in his Wars with the Russians and Lithuanians : he also quite rooted out the Jazygians , which then inhabited Podolia , but the Civil Commotions and frequent Incursions of the Tartars , occasioned great Disturbances in the Kingdom . He died in the year 1289.

§ 6. After the Death of Lescus , there were great Contests in Poland concerning the Regency ; Premislus till at last Premissus , Lord of Great Poland got the upper hand ; 1291. who also reassumed the Title of King , which the Regents of Poland had not used during the space of 200 years ; ever since that the Pope , after the banishment of Boleslaus the Hardy , had forbid them to choose a King of Poland . And the succeeding Princes were not very ambitious of that Title , because the Country was divided among several Persons . But Premislus did think himself powerful enough to make use of it . He was murthered by some Brandenburgh Emissaries , after he had reigned but seven Months . Vladisl . III. After him was elected Vladislaus Locticus , or Cubitalis , who did not stile himself King , but only Heir of Poland . But he having been deposed for Male-administration , Wenceslaus King of Bohemia was elected in his stead . 1300. But after his Death , which happened in the Year 1309. Locticus was restored , who waged great Wars against the Knights of the Cross , whom he at last vanquished in a great Battel . Under his Reign the Dukes of Silesia who were Vassals of Poland , submitted themselves to the Crown of Bohemia . He died in the Year 1333. Casimir III. Him succeeded his Son Casimir the Great , who having subdued all Russia , united it to the Kingdom of Poland , so that it should enjoy the same Laws and Liberties . He also first introduced the Magdeburgh Laws and Constitutions into Poland , and the Duke of Masuria did then first submit himself as a Vassal to the Crown of Poland . He died in the Year 1370. leaving no Issue behind him ; and by his Death the Male-Race of Piastus lost the Crown of Poland .

§ 7. After Casimir the Crown of Poland was devolved to Lewis King of Hungary , Lewis . the Sister's Son of Casimir : The Poles were not well satisfied with him , because he favoured the Hungarians too much . He died in the Year 1382. Sigismund King of Hungary would fain have succeed him in Poland , but the Poles refused him . Some proposed Zicmovitus the Duke of Masuria , but Hedwig the Daughter of King Lewis , for whom the Poles would by all means reserve the Crown of Poland , would not accept of him for her Husband . At last the Poles Crowned the above-mentioned Hedwig , and married her to Jagello Duke of Lithuania , Jagello , orVla●isl . IV. under Condition that he and his Subjects should turn Christians , and Lithuania should be united to Poland in one body . How Lithuania was united o Poland . The first Condition was performed immediately , for he was baptized , and called Vladislaus IV. But the performance of the second Article was delayed by the Kings of Poland for a considerable time after , under pretence that the Lithunians were not well satisfied in this Point , but in effect , because they were unwilling to surrender their right of Succession to the Dukedom of Lithuania ; till at last this Union was perfected under the Reign of King Sigismundus Augustus . This Jagello defeated the Knights of the Cross in a memorable Battel , where 50000 Men having been slain , he took from them a great many Cities in Prussia , but they afterwards recovered themselves . He died in the Year 1434. Vladisl . V. Him succeeded his Son Vladislaus V. who also afterwards was made King of Hungary , where he was engaged in a War against the Turks . In this War John Humades first defeated the Turks near the River Morava , and Vladislaus so beat them upon the Frontiers of Macedonia , that they were forced to make a Truce for Ten Years . But upon the perswasions of the Pope , who sent the Cardinal Julian , to absolve the King from his Oath , this Truce was broken ; and not long after that memorable Battel was fought near Varna , where the King himself was kill'd . 1445. This Defeat was very shameful and prejudicial to the Christians .

§ 8. Casimir IV. In his stead Casimir was made King of Poland : A great part of Prussia , which was weary of the Government of the Knights of the Cross , did surrender it self under his Protection : This occasioned a heavy War betwixt them and the Poles , which having been carried on a great while with dubious Success , a Peace was at last concluded by the mediation of the Pope ; by Vertue of which , the Poles got Pomerellia , Culm , Marienburgh , Stum and Elbing , the rest remaining under the jurisdiction of the Knights of the Cross , under Condition , that the Master of that Order should be a Vassal of Poland , and a Duke and Senator of that Kingdom . Much about the same time , the Duke of Vallachia , did submit himself as a Vassal to the Crown of Poland . Under the Reign of this King , the Deputies of the Provinces first appeared at the Dyets of the Kingdom . Vladislaus the Son of this Casimir was made King of Bohemia , and afterwards also of Hungary , tho' his own Brother John Albert did contend with him for the latter , but being soundly beaten , was obliged to desist from his Pretensions . Casimir died in the Year 1492. Him succeeded his Son John Albert , John Albert. who received a signal overthrow in Vallachia from the Turks and rebellious Vallachians . The Turks also fell into Poland , but by a sudden great Frost a great many Thousands of them were starved to Death . Under the Reign of this King , the Dukedom of Plotzk● in the Country of Masovia was united to Poland . He died in the Year 1501. Whom succeeded his Brother Alexander , Alexander . Sigismund . but he did not Reign longer than till the Year 1506. Whom succeeded Sigismund one of the most Famous Princes of his time . This King was engaged in three several Wars against the Muscovites , wherein the Poles always were Victorious in the Field , but the Muscovites who had got Smolensko by Treachery , kept the possession of that place . The War which he waged with the Knights of the Cross in Prussia , at last composed under these Conditions ; that Albert Marquess of Brandenburgh , who was then Master of that Order , should receive the Eastern parts of Prussia as a hereditary Fief from the King , and should acknowledge himself hereafter a Vassal of the Crown of Poland . Under his Reign also the whole Country of Masovia was re-united to the Crown of Poland . He also fought very successfully against the Vallachians , and died in the Year 1548. Sigismund is Augustus . leaving for his Successour his Son Sigismundus Augustus . Under his Reign Livonia submitted it self to Poland , as being not able to defend it self against the Muscovites , who already had taken Dorpt , Felin , and several other places . In this publick Consternation Estlad and Reval did surrender themselves to Erick King of Swedeland ▪ But the Archbishop of Riga , and the Master of the Teutonick Order , did seek for Protection of the King of Poland , which he would not grant them upon any other terms , than that they should submit themselves to the Crown of Poland . Whereupon the Master of the Order having abdicated himself , surrendred the Castle of Riga and some other places to the Poles . And he in recompence of his Loss was made Duke of Curland and Semigall . This occasioned a War betwixt the Poles and Muscovites , wherein these took from the former Plotzk● . This King died without Children , 1552. and by his Death the Male Race of the Jagellonick Family was quite extinguished .

§ 9. After his Death there were great Contentions in Poland concerning the Election of a new King , and at last by the majority of Votes , Henry of Val●●s Duke of Anjou . 1574. Henry Duke of Anjou , Brother of Charles IX . King of France , was declared King of Poland , who arriving there was crowned in the same Year . But he had scarce been four Monthsin Poland , when having Notice that his Brother the King of France was dead , he in the Night time , and in a thick Fog , for fear the Poles should detain him , relinquished Poland , and taking his way through Austria and Italy into France , took Possession of that Kingdom . The Poles being extreamly vexed at this Affront , were for electing a new King . A great many were for Maximilian of Austria , Steph. Batori . but Stephen Batori Prince of Transylvania having been declared King by the plurality of Votes , quickly came into Poland , and excluded Maximilian by marrying Anna the Sister of Sigismundus Augustus . This King reduced the City of Dantzick , which had sided with Maximilian to obedience . Afterwards he fell upon the Muscovites , taking from them Plotzko and the neighbouring Countries . At last he made Peace with the Muscovites , under this Condition , that they should resign to him the whole Country of Livonia , in lieu of which he would restore to them such places as , he had taken from them in Muscovy . This King adorned the Kingdom with wholesome Constitutions , and established the Militia of Horse , which Souldiers being paid out of the fourth part of the Royal Revenues , are commonly called the Quartians ; these he disposed upon the Frontiers to defend the same against the Incursions of the Tartars . By this means that Tract of Land which from Bar , Bracklavia and Kiovia , extends it self betwixt the two Rivers of the Dniester and the Borysthenes , as far as to the Black Sea , was filled with populous Cities and Towns , which is now called the Vkraine , it having been formerly a desolate Country . He also put into a good Order and Discipline the Cosacks , Th● Cosacks . who served for Foot Souldiers , giving to them Techtimorovia , situated on the River Borysthenes , which they made afterwards their Magazine , and the place of Residence of their Governours . Before this time the Cosacks were only a wild and barbarous sort of Rabble , who were gathered out of the Polish Russia , and having settled themselves in the Island of the River Borysthenes beneath Kiovia , lived upon Robbing and Plunder . These Cosacks , after they were brought into good Discipline by this King Stephen , have been for a considerable time serviceable to the Crown of Poland , not only against the Incursions of the Tartars , but also by their cruising into the Black Sea , have done great Mischief to the Turks . For they have had Courage enough to ransack the Cities of Trebisond and Sinope , nay , even the Suburbs of Constantinople with other places . This brave King , whilst he was making Preparations against the Turks , died in the Year 1586.

§ 10. Sigism . III. After his Death , Sigismund Son to John King of Swedeland was made King of Poland , who had this Advantage , that his Mother Catherine had been Sister of Sigismundus Augustus , and so consequently was descended from the Jagellonick Race . Some of the Poles proclaimed Maximilian their King , but he coming with some Forces to take Possession of the Kingdom , was beaten and taken Prisoner , and before he obtained his Liberty , was obliged to renounce his Title to that Crown . After the Death of John King of Sweden , 1592. Sigismund went in the Year next following into Swedeland , where he was Crowned King of Sweden . But having afterwards lost that Crown , it occasioned a War betwixt Poland and Sweden . In the beginning of this War , Charles IX . King of Sweden took a great many places from the Poles in Livonia , which were however most of them afterwards retaken by the Polish General and Chancellour Zamoiski : Besides this , 1605. the King of Sweden was vanquished in a great Battel fought near Kirckholm and Riga , where he narrowly escaped himself . But some intestine Divisions being arisen betwixt the King and the Nobility of Poland , King Charles got an opportunity to recover himself .

In the mean time there was a War kindled betwixt the Muscovites and Poles by the following occasion : Th● occasion of he War between Poland and M●sc●vy . There was a certain Person in Poland who pretended that he was Demetrius the Son of John Basilowitz , Grand Duke of Muscovy , and that he was to have been murthered by the Order of Boris Gudenow , who hoped thereby to obtain the Succession in the Empire after the Death of Theodore the eldest Son of the said John Basilowitz , but that another had been killed in his stead . This Man having found great Encouragement from George Mniszeck the Vayvod of Sendemir , promised to marry his Daughter . Wherefore this Vayvod with the Assistance of some other Polish Lords having gathered an Army that marched with Demetrius into Muscovy : And the Grand Duke Boris Gudenow happening to die suddenly soon after , 1605. Demetrius was well received by the Russians ; and having vanquished such as pretended to oppose him , he came up to the City of Muscovy , where he was proclaimed Grand Duke : But he quickly made himself odious to the Muscovites , they suspecting him to be an Impostor , but did however hide their resentments till the arrival of the Polish Bride . In the mean while the Muscovites ( under the Conduct of those of Suski , who were by their Mother's side descended from the Family of the Grand Dukes ) had under-hand got together about 20000 Men. 1606. These at the time when the Nuptials were celebrating with great Pomp , raised a Tumult , attacked the Castle , and cut to pieces Demetrius and a great many Poles who were come along with the Bride , tho' some of the chiefest defended themselves bravely and escaped their Fury .

Then Basilius Suski was proclaimed Great Duke in the publick Market place , Basil . great Duke of Muscovy . who caused there the Body of Demetrius to be exposed to publick view , but he being extreamly defaced by his Wounds , his Face could not be discerned by the multitude . Immediatly after , a rumor was spread abroad , that Demetrius was escaped , and another appeared soon after , who pretended to be the same Demetrius . Whether it was the same or not , is not yet determined ; this is certain that the Poles did acknowledge him as such , they being very desirous to revenge the former Affront and the Death of their Friends . This Old or New Demetrius did march with a great Army composed of Poles and Cosacks into Muscovy , 1086. where he several times beat Suski , whom he obliged to set at Liberty the captive Bride , and to beg the King of Poland to recal his Subjects . But the Bride having acknowledged this Demetrius for her Husband , he got a great part both in Muscovy and Poland that sided with him , and would quickly have ruined Suski , if he had not been succoured by the King of Sweden who sent Pontus de la Gardie with some Forces to his Assistance .

Sigismund also took hold of this Opportunity , Sigismund makes his a 〈…〉 of these Troubles in Muscovy . 1609. to try whether he could at least recover Smolensko and Severia from the Muscovites . Wherefore he besieged Smolensko in the Year 1609. which however he could not make himself Master of till the Year 1611. when he took it by Storm . In the mean time , the Poles which had hitherto sided with Demetrius , were recalled by Sigismund , who did think it not convenient that so considerable a part of his Forces should be under the Command of another . By the removal of these Forces , Suski had leisure given him to recollect himself , and with the Auxilaries sent him out of Swedeland , he marched against the Poles who had besieged Smolensko , 1610. but was defeated by the Poles near Clusin . By this overthrow the Affairs of the Muscovites were again put into a very dangerous Condition . Wherefore they took this Resolution to avoid the Danger which threatened them from the Polish side . They deposed Suski , who by his Misfortunes was become odious to them , and offered the Crown of Muscovy to Vladislaus the Prince of Poland . The Policy o● the Musc●vites . By this means they hoped at one stroak to ruin Demetrius , and to be reconciled to the Poles , in hopes , that they might easily meet with an Opportunity hereafter , when they had once rid themselves of the present Danger , to rid themselves also of the Prince of Poland . And this Project succeeed very well , for the Polish Troops immediatly left the Party of Demetrius ; Suski was surrendred to the Poles , who promised to the Muscovites , what had sworn before Allegiance to Vladislaus , that he should appear in Person in Muscovy in the Year 1610. But King Sigismund by the perswasions of some of his Friends refused this offer , thinking it more for his purpose to Conquer Muscovy by Force of Arms ; which Opportunity , however , he missed of , since he did not immediatly march towards the City of Muscovy , The Oversight of Sigismund . which he might have taken at the first Assault . But the Muscovites having discovered the Design of the Poles , did unanimously revolt from Vladislaus , especially since they had in the mean while been rid of Demetrius , who had been murthered by the Tartars that were his Gaurds . They therefore attacked the Polish Garrison in the City of Muscovy , which consisted of Seven Thousand Men , but these defended themselves bravely ; and besides this , set Fire to the whole City , which before had 180000 Houses , where abundance of People were burned . Nevertheless the Muscovites recovered themselves and besieged the Polish Garrison in the Castle of Muscovy . If King Sigismund immediatly after the taking of Smolensko , had sent them Relief , as he easily might have done , he questionless might have established his Affairs in Muscovy . But he marching back with his Army into Poland , and sending to their Relief neither Men nor Money , the Garrison who had before plundered the Treasury of the Great Duke , to the number of 7000. leaving some to Guard the Castle , fought their way through the Muscovites , and came to King Sigismund to demand their Pay . And tho' Sigismund began to apply himself in good earnest to re-establish his Affairs in Muscovy , yet all his Designs were by the jealousie which reigned betwixt the Generals so long delayed , till the Poles who had the Gaurd of the Castle of the City of Muscovy , were forced by Famine to surrender it . Thus all was lost in Muscovy ; for Sigismund , who was the more troubled at it , because he had made an account by the Conquest of Muscovy , to open his way into Swedeland .

Besides this , The Poles defeated in Moldavia . the Poles sustained in the same Year a considerable Loss in Moldavia . Prince Vladislaus did undertake an Expedition into Muscovy , but to no great purpose , wherefore he made a Truce with them for fourteen Years , 1617. wherein it was agreed , that the Poles in the mean time should keep in their Possession the Dukedom of Severia , Zernigo and Novogrod , which they had taken during these Troubles in Muscovy . In the mean time George Farenbach did surrender several places in Livonia to the King of Sweden , Gustavus Adolphus , but it was suspected that he intended to betray the King ; for soon after , the same Farenbach was reconciled to King Sigismund , unto whom he restored all the places , except Pernau .

In the Year 1620. A War betwixt the Poles and Turks . the Poles were engaged in a War against the Turks , that were as 't is supposed , stirred up by Betlem Gabor Prince of Transylvania ; for Sigismund having assisted the Emperour against him , Betlem Gabor was for making them a Diversion by the help of the Turks . The Turks therefore entred Moldavia with an Intention to banish that Duke , who sided with the Poles . the Polish General Zolkieuski coming to the Assistance of the Duke of Moldavia advanced too far into the Country , and as he was marching back , was totally routed and himself slain upon the Place . In the Year next following the Turks marched with their whole Froces against Poland , who were met by the Poles near Chocim under the Command of Prince Vladislaus . The Polish Army was about 65000 strong , but the Turks 392000 Men , commanded by the Turkish Emperour Osman in Person . The Turks did attempt three times to take the Polish Camp by Storm , but were as often repulsed with great Loss . But the Poles in the mean while suffered extreamly for want of Ammunition and Provisions , and were mightily weakened by Sicknesses and the Mortahty among their Horses . Nevertheless the Turkish Emperour made a very honourable Peace with them , after he had lost 60000 Men , in these several Storms made upon their Camp , and a greater Number in his march back to Constantinople .

In the mean time King Gustavus Adolphus falling into Livonia , 1621. took the City of Riga without any great Resistance . The Invasiof Gustavus Adolp● us . And the rest of Livonia , except Dunneburgh was Conquered by the Swedes in the Year 1625. 1625. King Gustavous entred Prussia with an Army in the Year 1626. where he took the Cities of Marienburgh and Elbing , besides some other Places . This War was thus carried on without any General Engagement till the Year 1629. when Hans Wrangel the Swedish General defeated the Poles near Gorzno . Then the Emperour sent some Forces to the Assistance of the Poles , who in a Battel fought near Stum , were very near having made King Gustavus their Prisoner . But the Polish Affairs being after this Battel fallen into great Confusion , a Truce was concluded by the mediation of France and England till the Year 1634. the Swedes being in the mean while to keep in their Possession Elbing , Memel , Braunsberg , Pill●u , and what else they had taken in Livonia . Sigismund died in the Year 1632.

§ 11. Vladis . IV. After his Death his Son Vladislaus IV. was declared King , who in the Year next following , obtained a signal Victory over the Muscovites that had besieged Smolensko ; for he not only forced them to raise the Siege , but also brought the Muscovite Army into such streights , that they were forced to surrender themselves . And the Turks who would have made a Diversion to him , 1634. were also bravely repulsed . At last Vladislaus made a very advantageous Peace on his side with the Muscovites , by vertue of which these renounced all their Pretensions upon the two large Dukedoms of Smolensko and Ozernichow . This begot such a Terrour among the Turks , that they freely made him Restitution for the Damages sustained in their last In-road , having also caused the Bashaw who commanded these Forces , 1635. to be strangled . The Truce with Sweden was prolonged at Stumdorf in Prussia , for 26 Years , where the places possessed before by the Swedes in Prussia were restored to the Poles , because the Swedish Affairs in Germany were then after the Battel of Norlingen in a very ill Condition , and besides this , the English and Dutch were extreamly dissatisfied with the Tolls that were paid in Prussia .

In the Year 1637. The Cause of the War with the Cosacks . the Foundation was laid of the War with the Cosacks , which has brought unspeakable Mischiefs upon the Poles . The business happened thus : As the number of the Cosacks was greatly encreased by the great number of Boors , which frequently ran into them , so the great Men in Poland had purchased great Estates in the Vkraine , who were of Opinion , that their Revenues would be considerably encreased , if the Liberty of the Cosacks were reduced into more narrow bounds . Wherefore they having advised the King , that they ought to be more restrained for the future ; the Polish General Konicepoliski , did cause the Fortress of Hudack to be built , just at a point where the River of Zwamer falls into the Dnieper or Borysthenes . The Cosacks endeavoured to prevent the perfecting of this Work by force , but being routed by the Poles , were obliged to surrender their General Pauluck and some of their Chief Men among them , who were all , notwithstanding a Pardon was promised them before hand , beheaded . Besides this , it was decreed in the Dyet , that all their former Priviledges and the Fortress of Techtimorovia should be taken from them , and that in their stead , a new body of Militia should be settled there . To put this Decree in execution , the Polish Army marched into the Vkraine , against which , the Cosacks fought with great bravery , promising nevertheless , that they would be faithful to the Crown of Polana , if their ancient Priviledges were confirmed to them , which the Poles did promise them , bur did not perform ; nay , did even treat some of them very ill . For among other oppressive Methods , they took also from them some of their Greek Churches . Their General Chmielinski was also grosly Affronted , for which he could obtain no Satisfaction . For the King having granted him a Priviledge to build some Mills , a certain Gentleman whose Name was Jarinski , burnt the same , having also ravished his Wife , and afterwards killed both her and her Son .

§ 12. John Casimir . In the mean time Vladislaus died , whom succeeded his Brother John Casimir . 1647. Then Chmielinski to revenge himself , stirred up the Cosacks against the Poles , who with Burning , Plundering and Ravishing , did what Mischief they could to the Polish Nobility . And the Senators having desired the King to march out into the Field against them , they were answered by him , That they ought not to have burnt down their Mills . Whereat the Poles being extreamly dissatisfied brought together an Army of 50000 Men , which being defeated by the Cosacks , The Poles defeated by ●he Cos●●●s . there were killed 10000 upon the Spot , and besides this , they took the City of Kiovia . To revenge this Affront , the Poles summoned the seventh Man throughout the whole Kingdom , and marched against the Cosacks without the Consent of the King , but were again miserably beaten by them . But Chmielinski celebrating the Nuptials of his Son with the Daughter of the Prince of Vallachia , the Poles surprised the Cosacks thereabouts , plundered the City , and took the Grecian Patriarch prisoner . The Cosacks then sent to the King to know whether this had been done by his Authority ; and the King having answered ▪ No , but that it had been done by the Nobility to take revenge of the Cosacks ; these joined with the Tartars and fell into Poland ; against these the King went in Person into the Field at the Head of the Nobility , and defeated them in a Battel ▪ but the King having afterwards made an Agreement with them , the Nobility was greatly discontented with the King's proceedings , alledging , that the King had granted too much to the Cosacks .

Whilst the Jealousies reigned in Poland , The Muscovites join w●th the C●sacks . the Muscovites fell into Poland , and having brought the Cosacks over to their Party , besieged Smolensko , which they took in the Year next following ; and having ravaged every where in Lithuania , 1653. they took Wilea and some other Cities , where they committed great Barbarities .

In the Year 1655. The King of Sweden invades Poland . another Storm threatened the Poles . For Charles Gustavus King of Swedeland having with an Army of chosen Men entred that Kingdom , first Conquered great Poland and Masovia , and afterwards the lesser Poland , with the capital City Cracovia , from whence he marched into Prussia , where almost all the Cities surrendred themselves , except Dantzick , where were at first a great many Citizens that favoured the Swedes , but by the perswasions of some Ministers , were kept in Obedience to Poland . The Resistance which was made by this one City , was the main Reason why all the Advantages got by the Swedes proved fruitless at last , and that they could not maintain themselves in Prussia , notwithstanding that not only the whole Militia of Poland , and that part of Lithuania which was not under the subjection of the Muscovites , had submitted themselves to the Swedish Protection , but also , that King John Casimir himself fled into Silesia . For the Poles having recollected themselves after the first Constemation was over , and being joined by the Tartars , fell upon such of the Swedish Forces as were dispersed up and down the Country . The Lithuanians also revolted , and killed all the Swedes that were in Winter Quarters with them . King Charles Gustavus also had greatly weakened his Army , not only by the great March towards Jeroslavia , but also Czarneski , the Polish General did often with his Light-Horse fall upon on the Rear of the Army , and did considerable Mischief . In the mean while the Poles also had retaken Warsovia , where they had made the Swedish Governour Wittenbergh and some other great Officers Prisoners , contrary to the Articles made at the surrendry of the Place . And tho' King Charles Gustavus having been joined before by the Elector of Brandenburgh's Forces did vanquish the Poles and Tartars in a memorable Battel which lasted three Days , and was fought near Warsovia , The Battel of Warsaw . yet all the Princes of Europe began to look about them , and to consult about a Diversion to be made Sweden . The Muscovites fell into Livonia , where they besieged Riga , but to no purpose . The Hollanders did give plainly to understand , that they were not willing that Prussia should come under the subjection of Swedeland . And the Danes also began to be in motion . On the other hand , Ragozi Prince of Transylvania invades Poland . Ragozi Prince of Transylvania entred Poland with an Army , to try whether perhaps he could obtain that Crown for himself . But the King of Sweden being obliged to march out of Poland against the Danes , Ragozi made a bad Market of it ; for before he could reach his own Country , he was totally routed , and oliged to make a shameful accord with the Poles . Which misfortune however he might have avoided , if he , according to the advice of the King of Sweden , who promised to keep the Poles so long in play , till he was out of danger , would have taken his march directly over Brescie , Pinsk , and so further towards his own Frontiers . But Ragozi would by all means take his way near Cracaw . Then the Poles retook Cracaw and Thorn , and chased the Swedes out of Curland , who had before taken the Duke of that name Prisoner . The Poles also besieged Riga , but were beaten from thence by the Swedish General Helmfeld . 1606. And tho the Poles by the Peace made at Oliva recovered all Prussia again , yet were they obliged to renounce all their pretensions upon Livonia , and to leave the Muscovites in the possession of Smolensko , Severia and Kiovia . Neither could they appease the Cosacks , some of them having put themselves under the protection of the Muscovites , some under the Turks , whereby they shewed the way to the Turks into Poland . Neither could the King put an end to the intestine divisions and jealousies , wherefore at last tired with these troubles John Casimir resigned the Crown , and living a retired life in France in the Abby of St. Germain , he there dyed a few years after .

§ . 13. There being now left none of the Royal Family in Poland , several Foreigners pretended to the Crown . But at last a Piastus , whose name was Michael Witsnowizki , Michael Witsnowizki was declared King , chiefly by the Votes of the lesser Nobility . His short Reign was full of intestine commotions , 1670. and the Turks in the mean while did not cease to do considerable mischief in Poland ; having in the year 1672. taken Caminieck in Podolia , which Fortress having been formerly thought impregnable , serves them now for a door , through which they may enter Poland at pleasure . A Peace was then concluded with the Turks , by vertue of which the said Fortress remained in the possession of the Turks , the Poles also having promised to pay to the Turks a yearly Tribute . This King dyed in the year 1673. In whose stead in the year next following the Polish General John Sobieski was made King of Poland , John Sobieski . he having in the year before attack'd the Turks in their Camp with such success , that of 32000 Men scarce 1500 escaped alive . He renewed the War with the Turks , but concluded a Peace with them in the year 1676. by vertue of which the Turks kept the Fortress of Caminieck , but remitted the yearly Tribute to the Poles . He being a Man of great capacity , it is hoped that he may prove a good King of Poland .

§ . 14. It is to be considered concerning the Polish Nation , T●e Genius of this Nation . that whosoever is not a Nobleman in Poland , is esteemed a Boor. For the Inhabitants of the Cities are very little regarded , and the Tradesmen are most Foreigners . But the Boors are esteemed nor used no better than Slaves , being also very raw and barbarous , both in their Life and Conversation , wherefore when we talk of the Poles , thereby ought only to be understood the Nobility . They are therefore commonly downright and honest , very seldom given to the art of dissembling ; they are of a very generous spirit , and expect a great deal of respect . And if you give them as much respect as they pretend to , they are no less courteous , and will willingly pay a respect again to you ; and their words and behaviour are full of Pomp and Ceremony . They are very liberal , or rather profuse ; and not given to be parsimonious , tho they should want the next day . This Nation also is very fierce and extravagant , much inclined to an uncountroled liberty , or rather licentiousness and petulancy . Wherefore Plots and Conspiracies against their Kings are frequent among them , whose Actions they canvase with a great deal of freedom , being always jealous of the least point of their Liberty . They do not want courage , but they are more fit to act with a sudden heat , than to endure long the fatigues of War . And because the Nobles only apply themselves to the War , who never serve but on Horseback , and the rest of the Inhabitants are of no great spirit , their infantry gathered out of the Natives is not worth much , wherefore they are obliged in their stead to make use of Foreigners listed into their Service , or of the Cosacks , who are courageous and active .

§ . 15. This Country is of a vast extent , The Nature of the Soil , &c. Its Commodities . and very Fertile in general , fit both for Tillage and Pasture , or breeding of Cattel . For Holland draws most of its Corn out of Poland , and the Polish Oxen are sent in great numbers into Germany . The Polish Wool also is in good esteem abroad . Poland abounds with good Horses . Lituania produces abundance of Hony , which is most consumed by the Inhabitants , who make Mead of it ; the rest is exported , as likewise abundance of Wax , Hemp , Flax , Leather , Pot-aslies , Salt , Wood , and the like . But on the contrary the Commodities which are imported here are Silk , woollen Stuffs and Cloaths , Tapestries , Sables , Hungarian and Spanish Wines , abundance of Spice , which they use in great quantity in their Dyet . If the Poles were addicted in the least to good Husbandry , and would apply themselves a little to Manufactures , the Commodities fit for exportation here , would much surpass those which need be imported .

Poland is very populous and full of Towns and Villages . Some have computed that the King and the Nobility have in their possession 90000 Cities and Villages , the Bishops and Canons 100550 , the rest of the Clergy , Monks and Nuns , 60950. Which in all amounts to the number of 250950 Towns and Villages . Yet I will not be answerable for this account .

§ . 16. The strength of the Kingdom . The chief strength of this Kingdom consists in the Nobility . The Poles have formerly given out that they could raise 250000 Horse , some say 200000 , out of the Nobility . Which seems to be a little largely spoken , except you would reckon among them their Servants . This is certain that in no Kingdom of Europe there is so great a number of Nobles . They also may find a way to raise a proportionable Infantry out of the Cosacks . And if they will stretch a little their Purses , they are able enough to raise sufficient for the maintaining of a great Army . Their weakness . But here is the mischief , that the King cannot levy any extraordinary Taxes , without the consent of the Nobility , and both the Clergy and the Nobility are very backward in paying of any Taxes , or at least grow quickly aweary of them , except it be in case of the highest necessity . And this is the reason why the King of Poland cannot carry on a War long with vigour . Besides this when the Nobles are s●●moned to appear in Arms , they come slowly into th●●ield , and are not easily kept under Discipline . The Polish Armies have also this inconveniency in them , that where 10000 fighting Men are , at least five times the number of Servants and idle Fellows follow the Camp , which proves a destruction to their own Country , and occasions scarcity of Provisions both for Men and Horse .

§ . 17. Concerning their Form of Government ; Their form of Government . it is to be observed that the Poles live under one Head , who bears the Title , and lives in the Splendour becoming a King ; but if you consider his Power , which is circumscribed within very narrow bounds , he is in effect no more than the Prime or Chief Regent in a Free Commonwealth . This King is always chosen by a free Election , where every Noble Man there present has his Vote ; and tho the Poles have been always inclined to keep to the Royal Race , yet have they never been for declaring a Successour during the life of the present King , but have always expected the vacancy of the Throne , as being of opinion , that this time is the most proper to abolish such Abuses as perhaps are crept in under the former Reign , and to prevent all means which may prove prejudicial afterwards to their Liberties . But , that , during this Vacancy , all disorders may be prevented , Justice is then exercised with more severity than at other times : the Archbishop of Guiesen , who is the Primate of Poland , being in the mean while the Regent , or as it were Interrex of the Kingdom . The Poles have had for a considerable time this Maxim , that they would rather choose a King out of a Foreign Princely Family , than out of their own Nobility ; as being of Opinion that thereby the equality among the Nobility may be better preserved ; for a Foreigner is no more engaged to one than to another ; whereas a Native always prefers his Kindred and Relations before the rest : and this Rule they have observed ever since the time of Jagello , who being a Lituanian , united Lituania with Poland . But they had not the same good fortune with Sigismund King of Sweden , partly because the situation of these two Kingdoms is such : that both cannot well be governed by one King ; partly because they were thereby engaged in a heavy War against Swedeland , which else might easily have been avoided ; but they have been always very careful not to take their Kings out of the House of Austria , fearing lest they should be treated like the Hungarians and Bohemians . In the two last Elections they have chosen two Kings out of their own Nobility , and whether thereby these Factions which have hitherto been predominant in that Kingdom , can be suppressed , time will shew . This Elective King has a great Revenue out of the Lands belonging to the Crown , The Revenues of the King . and has the sole power to dispose of all vacant Offices , Dignities and Benefices ; but he cannot make new Laws , begin a War ▪ impose new Taxes , or undertake any other Matters of great moment , without the consent of the Estates . The Estates in Poland are composed of the Bishops and some Abbots , The Estates of the Kingdom . of the Palatins or Vaywods , which are Governours of the Provinces , of the Castellans or Governours of Castles , and of the chief Officers of the Kingdom ; these compose the Senate , which consisted formerly of 150 Persons ; besides these there are the Deputies of the Nobility out of each District , who have almost the same power which the Tribunes of the People had at Rome ; since one single person among them by entring his Protest may annul a Decree at the Dyet ; and these Deputies use their Tongues very freely at the Dyet , both against the King and his Ministers ; from whence it often happens that Matters are debated here with great confusion , since by the capricious humour of one Deputy the benefit of the whole Dyet is lost at once ; especially since a certain time of six weeks is prefixed by the Laws for the holding of the Dyet , which they rarely suffer to be Prorogued , and that not but for a very few days ; but they call this right of contradicting , the Soul of the Polish Liberty . The King is also obliged to bestow all the vacant Benefices upon the Nobility , and cannot reserve any for his own use , or bestow them upon his Children without consent of the Estates , Of the Administration of Justice . neither can he buy or take possession of any Noblemens Lands . The King also is not Master of the Judicial Courts ; but there is a certain High Court of Justice , the Judges whereof are Nobles : first Instituted by King Stephen Batori . These Judges are changed every twelve months , and keep their Session six months in the year at Petricovia , and six months again at Lublin , and from these no Appeal lies to the King ; except that some Cases of the greatest Consequence are determined at the Dyet ; but Cases belonging to the King's Exchequer , or to his Revenues , are determined by the King . The Poles are extreamly fond of this form of Government , as being very suitable to their natural fierce inclinations ; yet the same is very improper for any sudden and great undertaking ; and contributes not a little to the weakness of this vast Kingdom , especially when the Nobility is refractory , and jealous of the King .

§ . 18. Neighbours of Poland . The Neighbours of Poland are on one side the Germans , where there is an open Country upon the Frontiers ; and particularly Poland borders upon Silesia , and in one corner upon Hungary . 'T is true that the German Empire is much superiour in strenth to Poland , Germany . but the interest of both these Kingdoms is such , as not to have any great occasion to differ with one another , except Poland should perhaps join with such Estates in Germany as would upon an occasion oppose the setting up of an Absolute Soveraignty in the Empire ; and in such a case the Poles would not want assistance either from the German , The House of Austria in particular . or foreign Princes , that must concur in the same Interest . The House of Austria alone is not powerful enough to conquer Poland , or to maintain a Country which is of so vast an extent and very populous , and lying all upon a level is not secured by any fortified places . If no body else should side with Poland , the Turks themselves would not easily suffer that the House of Austria should acquire such an advantage , and the Turks are the fittest instruments to prevent it . But the House of Austria has often endeavoured , tho the wisest among the Poles have always opposed it , to unite the Kingdom of Poland to their Family by an Election ; but the Poles are conscious of the danger which might accrue from this Union to their Liberty ; and besides this they are no great admirers of the Germans , whose modesty and good Husbandry they commonly despise . The Interest of Poland and Germany , with reference to the Turk . But it is of great consequence to Poland , that the Turks may not become quite Masters of the Vpper Hungary , and much more that they do not get footing in Moravia ; since thereby they would open their way into the very Heart of Poland . And on the other hand it is the common Interest both of the House Austria , and of all Germany , that the Turks may not become Masters of Poland , since thereby they would open their way into Germany . For the old saying of Philip Melanchton , Si Turca in Germaniam veniet , veniet per Poloniam , if the Turks come into Germany ▪ they will certainly come by the way of Poland , did not arise from a Prophetick Spirit , but has its good Reason in Geography . And it seems to be the common Interest of Poland , and the House of Austria , to keep up a mutual good understanding , since they both cover one anothers Frontiers , and Poland draws a great advantage from its Oxen and Salt which are sent into Germany . And if Poland should engage it self in good earnest against the House of Austria , it ought to be jealous of the Moscovites , who may attack it behind , except Moscovy were otherwise employed before . Poland also may be troublesome to the House of Austria , when that House is engaged in Wars against France , Sweden , or the Turks . Wherefore for a considerable time the House of Austria has endeavoured by Marriages to Allie Poland with their Family , and to gain a considerable party in the Senat. And France has followed the same methods to draw Poland from the Interest of the House of Austria ; and the Poles having been caressed by both parties have got no small advantage by this Rivalship . Brandenburgh . Brandenburgh also borders on one side upon Poland , and tho he alone cannot hurt it much , yet experience has taught us that in conjunction with others he has been able to create great troubles to the Poles . Tho on the other hand it is to be feared , that perhaps upon a good occasion offered to the Poles they may attempt to unite all Prussia to their Kingdom , as the Elector of Brandenburgh knew how to time it , when he obtained the Soveraignty over it . As long as the differences betwixt Poland and Sweden were on foot , Denmark and Sweden . Denmark by making a diversion could be very serviceable to Poland ; but since the causes of these differences are taken away , Poland need not make any particular reflection upon Denmark Swedeland and Poland have all the reason in the world to cultivate a mutual good understanding , since they may be very serviceable to one another against the Moscovites . Poland borders upon Moscovy by a great tract of Land , Moscovy . where the Frontiers are common to both : These two Kingdoms seem to be very near equal in strength ▪ and tho the Poles are better Soldiers than the Moscovites , yet has the Great Duke of Moscovy this advantage over them , that he is absolute in his Dominions . And it is of great consequence to either of them , which of these two is in the possession of Smolensko , to recover● which the Poles ought to employ all their strength . For the rest , these two States being both obliged to have a watchful Eye over the Turks , can assist one another against them in case of necessity .

The Tartars are the most pernicious Neighbours of Poland , The Tartars ▪ for they are a Nation living by depredations , who surprise their Neighbours , and when they have loaded themselves with Spoils return Home again , where you cannot be revenged of them , they being so nimble , and having nothing worth taking from them . Wherefore what ever mischief they do must be taken as if you were bit by a Dog , except you can catch them in the fact , and make them pay for it with their Heads . Against these the Country of Moldavia used to be a Bulwark to Poland . Moldavia . For through that Country the Tartars have a direct passage into the Provinces of Poland , which may be shut up against them by the help of that Prince . Wherefore the Poles do much lament the loss of this Dukedom , which having been formerly a Fief of that Crown , tho that Duke pays also some Tribute to the Turks , was brought in the year 1612. entirely under the Turkish subjection . The Cosack● . The Cosacks also used to be very serviceable against the Tartars , as living near the Isthmus of the Taurick Chersonese , and therefore were conveniently situated to cut of their retreat in their return Home . But the Poles by their ill entertainment have so exasperated the Cosacks , that since they have done as much mischief to them , as formerly they used to do good . And if the Poles should not be able by fair means to bring over the Cosacks again to their side , and these should either submit themselves to the Moscovites or the Turks , or that these should quite root them out , then Poland has got an incurable Ulcer on that side , which may prove fatal to all the Neighbouring Provinces of the Vkrain .

Lastly , the Turk is a dangerous Neighbour to Poland , whose strength is much superior to that of Poland , especially if the Poles are not assisted by the Cosacks , or by some Foreign State . For , tho the Polish Cavalry may not be inferiour to the Turks , yet cannot I see which way they can bring into the Field such Forces as may be equal to the Janisaries . Tho the negligence and domestick divisions of the Poles have lately been the chief inducements , which have drawn the Turks so deep into Poland . There is not any thing which would more conveniently secure the Poles against the Turks , than if the Princes of Moldavia , Wallachia and Transylvania , did belong to Poland , they being able to hinder the passage of the Turks into Poland . But , because the Poles have long ago lost this advantage , or rather neglected it , it is their business now , to take care that the Turks do not advance deeper into the Country . And to take away all pretensions of a War from the Turks , it seems very necessary that the Poles , as much as in them lies , do take care that the Cosacks do not in time of Peace commit depredations upon the Turkish Subjects . For else the Turks are not to be blamed , if endeavouring to root out these rapacious Birds they destroy their Nest , and make the Vkrain a vast Wilderness . When Poland is engaged in a War with the Turks , it may expect some Subsides from the Pope . The House of Austria , is able , by making a diversion to the Turks , to give relief to Poland ; but this House hitherto has not been forward to attack the Turks , if these have not been the first aggressors . The Moscovites also might contribute somthing this way , if there were any hopes of a true understanding betwixt these two Nations ; but as the case now stands , the Poles must chiefly rely upon their own strength , and by the circumstances of their own affairs be able to judg how far they ought to engage themselves against the Turk .

CHAP. XI . Of MOSCOVT .

§ . 1. THE first origin of this Empire , The antient State of Russia . and the atchievements of their antient Princes are very uncertain and obscure , since what is to be found of this nature among an ignorant people , is all very confused : So much is certain , that this great Empire was formerly divided into a great many petty Lordships , which afterwards were united in one body . We will only relate in a few words , that the Russians in the year 989. first embraced the Christian Religion , at which time their Prince , Wolodomir married Anne , the Sister of the Grecian Emperour Basilius Porphyrogenitus . In the year 1237. their Prince George , was slain by Battus the King of the Tartars ; whereby the Russians being brought under the subjection of the Tartars , their Princes were dependent on them . After a long time they at last freed themselves from this slavery under their Prince John , John . Son of Basilius the Blind , who began his Reign in the year 1450. Under his Reign Russia was first united into one considerable Body , he having subdued most of these petty Princes , which had divided Russia among them , especially the Dukes of Tiver and of Great Novogrod , in which City 't is said he got a booty of three hundred Cart loads of Gold and Silver . This Prince built Juanogrod , a Castle near Narva .

§ . 2. Basilius . Him succeeded his Son Basilius who took Pleskeu , which was formerly a free City . From the Poles he also took Smolensko , but was soundly beaten by the Astracan Tartars , who at the same time ransack'd the City of Moscovy . John Basilewitz . Him succeeded his Son John Basilowitz , a cruel Tyrant , 1533. who conquer'd the two Kingdoms of the Tartars of Casan and Astracan , and united them to Muscovy . He used the Livonians very ●atharously , having killed one Furstenbergh the Master of the Order of Knighthood there , which was the occasion that the City of Reval and whole Tethland surrender'd themselves to Swedeland , and all the rest of Livonia to Poland . He was at first victorious against the Poles , but afterwards Stephen Batori took from him Plotzko and several other places . He died in the Year 1584. and unto him succeeded his Son Theodore Iuanowitz ▪ Theodore Iuanowitz . a very simple Prince , against whom the Swedes waged War about Ingermanland .

§ 3. This Theodore dying without Issue , his Brother in Law Boris Guidenow did by his Intrigues obtain the Empire , Boris Guidenow . but with very indifferent Success , especially after the supposed Demetrius began to contend with him for it ; 1605. during which Troubles he died . His Son Theodore Borissowitz was proclaimed Great Duke of Muscovy , but the Muscovites having afterwards for the most part sided with the supposed Demetrius , he was taken Prisoner and murthered , after he had but Six Months enjoyed the Title of Grand Duke . What became of the supposed Demetrius , 1606. and how Basilius Zuski took upon him the Imperial Dignity , we have related before . To this Zuski , Charles IX . King of Swedeland offered his Assistance against the second supposed Demetrius , which he at first refused to accept of . But afterwards , when the other began to be too strong for him , he earnestly desired the same , promising to surrender to Charles as an acknowledgement , Kekholm . The King sent to his Assistance Pontus de la Gardie with some Thousand Men , who were very serviceable to the Muscovites ; nevertheless they made a great many Evasions , refusing to deliver up these places which they had promised before ; wherefore the Swedes took them by Force , and thereby united Carelia and the rest of Ingermanland with the Kingdom of Sweden . How this Basilius Zuski was delivered up to the Poles , how the supposed Demetrius was slain , and Vladislaus Prince of Poland made Duke of Muscovy , had been related before .

§ 4. Michael Fadorowitz . At last Michael Fadorowitz Son of the Patriarch Theodore Mikitowitz , born of the Daughter of John Basilowitz maintained himself in the Empire , 1613. who having concluded a Peace with Sweden and Poland ▪ restored tranquillity to the Muscovites . 1645. Him succeeded his Son Alexius Michaelowitz , Alexius Michaelowitz . who in the Year 1653. falling upon the Poles , took from them Smolensko and Kiovia , and committed great depredations in Lithuania . 1656. And having entred Livonia took Dorpt , Koenhusen and several other places of less Note , but was obliged to raise the Siege of Riga with great Loss . And by vertue of a Peace made with Swedeland , was obliged to relinquish them all again . In the Year 1669. one Stephen Ratzin raised a Rebellion against him , and having brought under him Casan and Astracan , commited great depredations all over the Country , but being taken Prisoner , received his due reward , and the rest were reduced to their former obedience . And because some of the Cosacks had submitted themselves to his Protection , he was thereby engaged in a War with the Turks , wherein he got but little Advantage . He died in the 1675. Him succeeded his Son Theodore Alexowitz a young and sickly Prince , Theodore Alexowitz . of whom we can say nothing as yet .

§ 5. The Genius of this Nation . Of the Qualifications of the Muscovites , nothing very praise-worthy can be said . For among them there is no such Education as among most other European Nations , Reading and Writing being the highest Degree of Learning among them , and the Learning of their Priests themselves does not go further than to be able to read a Chapter out of the Bible , or to read a piece of a Sermon . They are also jealous , cruel and bloody-minded ; insupportably proud in prosperity , and dejected and cowardly in adversity . Nevertheless they have such an Opinion of their own Abilities and Merits , that you can scarce ever pay them sufficient Respect . They are very fit for and cunning in the Trade of Usury , but are of a servile Temper , and must be kept under by severity . At all sorts of Games and Sports their end is with blows and fighting ; so Sticks and Whips are the usual Instruments among them . They are of a strong Constitution , able to undergo all sorts of Fatigues , even Famine and Thirst . In Field-Fights and Sieges they are worth nothing , because they are soon brought into Confusion , and are themselves of Opinion , that other Nations are their Masters in this Point . But they defend a Fortress to the utmost , not only because they are very fit to undergo hardships and all sorts of misery , but also because they know it is present death to them if they return home after they have surrendred a Fortress by accord . Nevertheless , they do endeavour to bring their Soldiers under better Discipline , for which purpose , they make use of a great many Scotch and German Officers , who are to instruct them in all manner of Exercises as practised among other European Nations . But they do not allow that the Muscovites should serve abroad and learn themselves the perfection of Military Arts and Exercises , because the Grand Duke stands in fear , that if they should grow too knowing , they might be for making Innovations at home .

§ 6. The Nature of the Country and Commodities . The Territories of the present Grand Duke of Muscovy are of a very large extent , yet so ▪ that a great many parts are meer Wildernesses scarce inhabited at all . The Muscovites have at home great plenty of Corn , Cattel , all sorts of Game , Fish , Salt , Furrs and all other Necessaries . They have a great many Commodities fit for exportation , especially , Furrs and their precious Sables , which are esteemed at a high Rate among their Neighbours , Salt-Fish , Casiarr , Hides , Tallow , Wax , Honey , Pot-ashes , Soap , Hemp , and the like . But the Commodities which are imported to them are Silk , Stuffs , Gold , Silver and Woollen Cloths , Tapestry , Pearls and Precious Stones , Spices and Wines , but the latter not in any great Quantities ; Tobaco is now a prohibited Commodity there . They keep it for a constant Custom in their way of Trade , not to buy with ready Money , but to exchange Commodities for Commodities , and it is against the Constitutions of Muscovy , to export any Coin . Their greatest Trade is at Archangel , which way the English first found out in the Year 1553. But since that time the Hollanders and Hamburgers have followed their Example . Before that time , this Trade was carried on by the way of Narva and Reval , but tho' this was the shorter way , yet did the foreign Merchants not care to be so much in subjection to the Swedes and Danes . There is also a considerable Trade carried on with the Persians upon the River of Wolga by the way of Astracan .

§ 7. Form of Government . The Form of Government here is an absolute Monarchy ; the Grand Duke , whom they call in their Native Language Ozar , being not tied up to any Laws or Rules , unto whom his Subjects are obliged to pay Obedience without reserve , so that they are no more than Slaves , which also sutes best with their natural Constitution . And therefore this absolute Power of the Prince is a great addition to his Strength , Strength of the Country . since he cannot only raise some Hundred Thousands of Men at the first Command , but also has vast Riches and prodigious Revenues . These do accrue to him , not only out of the Taxes and income of so vast a Country , but also because the Grand Duke himself has the monopoly of Sables , and if I am not much mistaken , also Farms out all publick Inns , Taverns and Ale-houses himself , which amounts to a prodigious Revenue in a Country where the Nation is much addicted to drinking . He makes also his Presents to Foreign Princes and Ambassadours in Sables , but receives in lieu of them Gold and Silver . Besides this , it is a common Custom with him , to set a new Stamp upon Crown Pieces , and to oblige his Subjects to take them for double the value : From whence it cannot be supposed but that this Prince must lay up vast Treasures . Muscovy also enjoys this Advantage before other States , that it is not to be attack'd on the backside , because its Territories are on the North-East side surrounded by a vast unnavigable Sea , and vast Wildernesses .

§ 8. Neighbours of Muscovy . The Persiant . The Neighbours of Muscovy are on the East-side , the Persians . These two States cannot hurt one another much , the Caspian Sea , unaccessible Countries and vast Wildernesses being their common Borders ; wherefore it is not worth their while to extend their Conquests upon one another . But they may be serviceable to one another by making a Diversion to the Turks . Tartars . The Tartars are woublesome Neighbours to the Muscovites , who make no account of Faith or Alliances , but make a Trade of Robbing and Plundering , against whom there is no Remedy , but to kill them as fast as one can ; and this is not so easily to be done , because they are very nimble . The Crim-Tartars are the most mischievous to Poland , to hinder their Incursions , the Muscovites are obliged to keep a considerable number of Horse upon the Frontiers , and they give them sometimes a Diversion , with the help of the Donisque Cosacks , and the Nagage and Calmuck-Tartars . If the Muscovites could maintain themselves in Kiovia , and a part of the Vkraine , it would serve them at once to bridle these Robbers , and for a Bulwark against the Turks . For the Turks do not immediately border upon Muscovy , but by the Country of the Crim-Tartars , who being Vassals of the Turks , they make use of them like their hunting Dogs . Wherefore it is of great consequence to Muscovy , that the Turks do not become Masters of the whole Vkraine , since thereby they would be enabled with the help of the Cosacks and Tartars to do great mischief to Muscovy .

The Muscovites ought to have a watchful Eye over the Poles , Poland . they being so situated , that they may do the greatest mischief to Muscovy , especially since the Poles are much better Souldiers than the Muscovites in the Field . But the Muscovites have at present a great Advantage against Poland , since they are possessed of Smolensko , Severia and Kiovia , which cover their Frontiers on that side . Muscovy need not fear any thing much from that side where it borders on Sweden , Sweden . not only because it is able enough to defend it self there , if every thing is quiet at home , but also because the Swedes are not ambitious to make any more Conquests on that side , since to maintain such large and far distant Countries , would be more hurtful than profitable to their State . And the Kings of Sweden have of late shewed no great inclination to fight with the Muscovites . But if the Swedes in conjunction with the Poles should attack the Muscovites , they would put them very hard to it ; whereas also the Muscovites may prove very troublesome to Swedeland if they should join in conjunction with the Enemies of Swedeland . Nevertheless , the Muscovites ought not to make any great account upon an Alliance with Denmark , because they are far distant from one another , and therefore cannot revenge themselves upon one another ; if one of them should put a Trick upon the other , and as soon as he has obtained his aim , leave the other in the lurch : Neither have the Muscovites hitherto appeared at any general Treaties .

CHAP. XII . Of the Spiritual Monarchy of Rome : or , of the Pope .

§ 1. Politick Reflections upon Popedom . THE Pope may be considered two different ways : First , As far as the Articles which are taught by him and differ from other Christians , are agreeable or disagreeable with the Holy Scriptures , and consequently useful or prejudicial to Salvation , which Consideration we leave to Divines . Secondly , As far as the Pope is not only possess'd of a considerable Principality in Italy , but also pretends to be the Sovereign and Supreme Head of Christendom , at least in Spiritual Matters , and in effect , exercises the said Power in those States of Europe which profess themselves of the same Communion with him .

This second Consideration belongs to the Politicians , for this spiritual Sovereignty does introduce great alterations ▪ and interferes with the Supreme Civil Power ; nay , circumscribes and maims it . Wherefore since Religion has been so interwoven with the Civil Interest , it belongs to the perfection of an understanding Politician , to be well instructed whence this Spiritual Monarchy had its Original , and by what means it hath so mightily increased and is preserved . From whence also will appear , of what nature are the chiefest Controversies now in vogue among Christians in the Western Parts of the World , how far they are owing either to the various Interpretations of the Holy Scripture , or to worldly Interest ; so that from thence a Wise Man may easily judge , whether at any time these Controversies are likely to be composed or not .

§ 2. Now to look back to the first beginning of things , we find , that before the Nativity of our Saviour the Inhabitants of the whole Universe , except the Jews , lived in gross Ignorance as to Spiritual Affairs . For what was commonly taught concerning the Gods , was for the most part involved in Fables and most extravagant absurdities 'T is true , The Blindness of Heathens in Matters of Religion . some of the learned among them , have pretended to give some rational Account concerning the Nature of the Gods and the State of the Soul ; but all this in so imperfect and dubious a manner , that they themselves remained very uncertain in the whole matter . They agreed almost all of them in this Point , that mankind ought to apply it self to the practice of Vertue , but they did not propose any other Fruits , but the Honour and Benefit which from thence did accrue to Civil Society . For what the Poets did give out concerning the rewards of Vertue and punishments of Vice after Death , was by these who pretended to be the wisest among them , look'd upon as Fables , invented to terrify and keep in awe the common People . The rest of the People lived at random , and what the Heathens called Religion , did not contain any Doctrine or certain Articles concerning the knowledge of Divine Matters . But the greatest part of their Religious Worship consisted in Sacrifices and Ceremonies , which tended more to Sports and Voluptuousness , than to the Contemplation of Divine Things . Wherefore the Heathen Religion did neither Edify in this Life , nor afford any Hopes or Comfort at the time of Death .

§ 3. The Constitution of the Jewish Religion . At that time the Jews were the only Nation unto whom God had revealed the true Religion , which could lead Mankind in the way of Salvation . Nevertheless , there was a vast difference betwixt that and the Christian Religion , not only because the Jewish Religion represented the Saviour of the World and the Fountain of Salvation in Types and Promises ; whereas the Christian Religion comprehends the reality and accomplishment of the same ; but also because the Jewish Religion was cloathed with a great many and those very burthensome Ceremonies : And some of them being accommodated to the natural inclination of that Nation , they proved an obstacle to the general reception of that Religion by all Nations : This ceremonial part being like a Wall , whereby the Jews were separated from other Nations . 'T is true , all other Nations were not excluded from receiving Salvation through the Belief in the Saviour of the World who was to come . There were also some among the Jews , who were very careful , and applied themselves to the conversion of such as they kept Correspondence withal . But it was not decreed by God Almighty to send all over the Earth at that time his Delegates or Apostles , instructed with peculiar Gifts to call all Nations to unite themselves with the Jewish Church : And what was done by some private Persons in converting of Infidels , was of no great consequence in comparison of the whole World . Besides this , the Jewish Nation being at that time the selected People of God , adorned with great Prerogatives , and having the possession of the only Temple of God , was grown so proud , that the Jews despised all other Nations besides themselves . They being also obliged by the Institution of their Ceremonies , not to converse too familiarly upon several accounts with other Nations ; this occasioned a mutual hatred betwixt the Jews and them , which was a main obstacle to the propogation of the Jewish Religion . Neither could other Nations easily digest this , that as often as they were to attend the solemn and publick divine Service , they were first to travel to Jerusalem , as if it were not in their power to build a Temple equal to the other near home . Besides this , such as received the Jewish Religion , were esteemed among them one degree below the Natives , which was the reason why very few could resolve for the Jewish Religion's sake , to be despised among them as Foreigners .

§ 4. The Christian Religion is proper for all the world . But the Christian Religion is not only much clearer , and also has other great Prerogatives above the Jewish , which Consideration we will leave to the Divines : But it is also freed from those Circumstances which were particular to the Jewish Religion , and endowed with all Qualifications requisite for an universal Religion ; wherefore every one is obliged to receive and embrace it , which deserves particularly to be remarked , that hereby we may investigate and penetrate to the very bottom , the propriety and genius of the Christian Religion . For here is no particular place appointed by God Almighty for performing in publick the Divine Service , nor can any place claim a Prerogative before another , so that no Nation henceforward has any occasion to make exception about the remoteness of the Temple ; but in all places you may lift up holy Hands unto him , no Temple in the World having any particular promise appertaining to it that God will sooner hear your Prayers in that than in another . No Nation has according to the Christian Religion , a precedency before another , whereby one may claim a Prerogative above the other . Here is no Jew , no Greek , no Bond nor Freeman , but they are all one in Jesus Christ . Here is no particular Family or Tribe appointed by God for the publick administration of Divine Service as it was among the Jews ; but none is excluded here , provided he be endowed with the necessary Qualifications . There is no Article in the Christian Religion , which forbids us to cultivate with others either familiarity , or to render to one another the Duties required from us by the Law of Nature .

It is purely and by it self considered , Not contrary to Civil Government . quite separated from all worldly Ends and Interests ; yet is her Doctrine not in the least repugnant to , or alters Civil Society or Laws , as far as they are consonant to the Law of Nature , but it rather ( tho' that is not her main intention ) confirms the same . There is nothing to be found in the Christian Religion , which is destructive to the Ends of Civil Society , or which hinders us from living honestly , quietly and securely under the protection of Civil Magistrates , or from executing in every respect the highest Civil Power according to the Law of Nature , true Reason and the Necessities of the State , or from administring all Offices and performing such Duties without offending against the Rules of Christianity , as are requisite for the maintaining a State established according to the Law of Nature . The Christian Religion rather promotes all these things , expresly commanding us strictly to observe every Commandement of the Law of Nature , and especially those where no temporal punishment could be conveniently inflicted by the Civil Constitutions , and to perform our Duty with all Faithfulness and Zeal , as far as the same is consonant with Honesty and the Law of Nature . No other Religion or Philosophy comparable to it .

Wherefore not any Philosophy or Religion whatsoever is in this point to be compared with the Christian Religion , which may be evident enough to all who will make a true comparison betwixt this and all the rest . And every body is therefore obliged as he hopes to answer for his Soul before God , not only to receive the Christian Religion , but also all Sovereigns and Magistrates ought for the above-mentioned reasons , and out of a Duty belonging to their Office , to introduce and maintain it . It is objected , that the Effects of the Christian Religion are not so visible , nor that the Life and Conversation of a great many Christians is not different from that of the Heathens and Turks ; it is to be observed , that this Fault is not to be imputed to the Christian Doctrine , but to the Inclinations of such as profess the name of Christians , but will not in earnest apply themselves to alter their evil Inclinations , and to live according to the wholesome Precepts of this Religion .

§ 5. Concerning the outward Government of Religion . As what we have hitherto said , can scarce be denied by the more understanding sort , so there arises now a Question , viz. Whether , according to the Doctrine of the Christian Religion it is absolutely requisite , that the outward Direction or Government of the same be committed to another , besides him who has the supreme Civil Power in a State ? or , which is much the same , Whether according to the Christian Doctrine , it be necessary that the outward Government of it be lodged with the whole Body , or one of the Clergy in particular independent of the Supreme Magistrate ? Or , whether there ought to be but one Sovereign Administrator of the Christian Religion , on whom all other Christian States ought to depend in this Point ? Or , which some take for the same thing , whether every State ought to be governed according to its own Constitutions and Interest ? Or whether all other States are obliged to be Slaves to one , and to promote the Interest of that one , with the Detriment and Ruin of their own . What is meant by the external Government of Religion .

By the outward Direction or Government of the Christian Religion , we understand the Power of constituting certain Persons for the exercising of the publick Divine Service , and the supreme Jurisdiction over their Persons ; the supreme Administration and Direction of such Possessions as are dedicated to Religious Services . The Power of making Laws for the outward maintenance of Religion , and the determining of such Differences as may arise among the Clergy under what pretext soever it may be , and such like . We make a great difference betwixt the outward Direction of Religious Affairs and betwixt the Ministry of the Church , which consists in teaching , preaching and administring of the Sacraments , all which , doubtless belong only unto the Clergy . This Question also is to be understood of a Church already planted and established , not of a Church that is to be planted and established . For since the Christian Religion owed its Original to Divine Revelation , no humane Power could pretend to have any Direction in the same , before this Doctrine was throughly proposed and taught by such as had an immediate Authority for so doing from God Almighty . For when our Saviour after his Resurrection did send his Disciples as Delegates and Apostles throughout the whole World , to publish and introduce the Christian Religion , they received their Commission for Preaching every where not from the supreme Civil Magistrates , but from God himself : wherefore Kings as well as the common People were obliged to acknowledge them as immediate Messengers of God , and obediently to submit themselves to their Doctrine ; and it would be next to an absurdity if any one should pretend to a Direction in such Matters , as he was not instructed in before . From whence arises this Consequence , that what has been said is to be understood of such Sovereigns or supreme Magistrates as themselves profess the true Christian Religion , but not of those who are Infidels or erroneous in the chief Articles of the Christian Faith . For to commit the Direction of Religion to the latter , would be to make the Wolf a Shepherd .

§ 6. The Consideration of this Question according to the nature of Religion in general . This Question may be considered in three-several ways : First , Whether this Necessity arises from the Nature of each Religion in general ? Or , Secondly , Whether it arises from the Genius of the Christian Religion in particular ? Or , Thirdly , Whether the same is imposed upon us by Divine Institution or the particular Command of God ? That it should proceed from the natural Constitution of Religion in general , I am in no ways able to find out . For Reason does not tell me , that if I intend to serve God , I must of necessity make a division in the State , and thereby introduce two different Powers independent of one another . The dismembring of the supreme Power , or such a double-headed Sovereignty in a State , administers continual Fuel , which at last breaks out into Jealousies , Divisions , and intestine Commotions . On the other hand , it is in no ways contrary to Reason to serve God , and at the same time leave the supreme Direction of the outward Matters belonging to Divine Service , to such as have the supreme Power in the State ; if we suppose that those who have the supreme Power in their Hands , will not impose any thing upon their Subjects which is false or erroneous . It cannot be denied , that as every one is bound by the Law of Nature to serve God ; also is it at the same time in his Power to perform the outward Ceremonies in such a manner as he believes they are most pleasing to God . But after Civil Societies were instituted , that same Power is thereby devolved to those who have the supreme Administration of Affairs in a Civil Society . And the most antient Fathers who did not live under any regulated Government , exercised this Power in their Families , which used to be transferred to the Eldest Son , as haereditas eximia ( or a hereditary Prerogative ) if the Brothers , after the Father's death , did resolve to live together in one Community . But when afterwards Civil Societies were instituted , the same Power was transferred to the Heads of these Societies , and that out of a weighty Consideration : For if every one had been left to his free Choice in this Point , the various and different Ceremonies in the Divine Service must needs have introduced Confusions , Divisions and intestine Commotions . And tho' by the Jews the publick Ministry was hereditary to one particular Family , yet the inspection and supreme Direction was among them reserved to those who had the supreme Civil Power in their Hands , as the same is practised among most other Nations .

§ 7. According to the Nature of the Christian Religion in particular . Neither can any Reason be given why the Christian Religion is particularly so qualified , as to imply a necessity , that the abovementioned Direction should be committed to any other than the supreme Magistrates , tho' it contains something more than is taught us by the Light of Nature ; since we suppose that by vertue of this directive Power , they ought not to impose any thing upon us contrary to the Word of God , nor be a hinderance to the Priests in performing the Ministry according to the Ordinances of God in the Holy Scriptures . Neither can I find out any Reason , why the supreme Magistrates should want means duly to qualify themselves for this Administration or Direction . At least , they may let this Direction be exercised under their Authority by such as have acquired sufficient abilities for the same : In like manner as Sovereigns exercise their Power by others in Civil Affairs , so the Power of making Laws was never denied to appertain to Sovereigns , tho' it is certain that a Doctor or Professor of the Law , ought to be better instructed in them than is required from a King . For both in these and other Matters , Sovereigns ought to act with the Advice of such as have applied themselves throughly to such Affairs . And as it is against the Interest of a Good and Wise King , if this Power be not well exercised , so it is both his Duty and Interest to see the administration of Religious Matters well performed . For the more zealous and earnest he is in maintaining the Christian Religion , the more obedient and better qualified his Subjects are likely to be , and he may the better hope for the Blessing of God Almighty . Neither can any thing be alledged why God Almighty should not as well afford his Assistance to a Christian and Orthodox Sovereign as to any other , to perform this Government praise-worthily . Lastly , because the Christian Religion does not in any other way derogate from Civil Ordinances and Laws , or from the Power of Civil Magistrates as far as they are founded upon the Law of Nature ; so it is not to be supposed that it disagrees from this in this one Point , except a positive Command of God can be alledged for the proof of this Assertion . Whether there be such a Command in the Holy Scriptures , which expresly forbids Sovereigns to intermeddle with this Direction , and allows the same to others in the highest degree of Sovereignty without any dependency at all , those are obliged to prove , who endeavour to maintain this Assertion . In the mean while we will inquire into the first Occasion , and by what degrees this Ecclesiastical Monarchy was established in the Western Churches .

§ 8. First propagation of the Christian Religion . The Apostles therefore having after the Ascension of our Saviour , according to the Instructions received from his own Mouth , begun to spread the Doctrine of the Christian Religion in far distant Countries , met with great approbation in a short time , both among the Jews and other Nations ; but more especially among the Common People , which having hitherto lived in gross Ignorance and in a miserable Estate , very joyfully received this Doctrine , which enlightened and comforted them in the miseries of this Life . The Apostles also themselves , who were of mean Extraction and of no great Authority , used to converse most among this sort of People , as having the most easie access to them as their equals . But Men of Quality and Learning did scare at first think it worth their while to apply themselves diligently to search into the bottom of this Religion , and very few of them would profess it . The Methods of God in Establishing the Christian Religion .

If we may inquire into the Reasons why it was the pleasure of the Wise God to choose this way of planting the Christian Religion , it seems very probable , that God was not pleased to introduce the Christian Religion by the Power and Authority of Civil Magistrates , nor by the Assistance of Learned Men , because it might not be deemed hereafter a State Trick , or a Philosophical Speculation ; but that whenever a due comparison might be made betwixt the slender beginnings and prodigious encrease of this Religion , the World might from thence conclude , that the whole was something above humane Power . And because the Learned had proved unsuccessful with all their subtilties in their Discoveries concerning Divine Matters ; and that Socrates and some others who were sensible of the vanity of the commonly received Superstitions , and had condemned them as such , had not been able to abolish those , and in lieu thereof , to introduce a better Religion ; God Almighty was willing to convince the World of the Vanity of worldly Wisdom , and to shew , how easie it was for him to effect this great Work by the means , even of poor Fishermen . Besides this , the Doctrine of the Apostles seemed to be full of absurdity to the Philosophers and Politicians , the same being founded upon , and begun with Jesus who was crucified . For it appeared very strange to them that the Apostles should acknowledge him for the Son of God and their Saviour , who was of a hated and despised Nation , who having lived without any great Splendour , or performed any great Heroic Actions ; had besides this , not made himself Famous throughout the World by long Study or Preaching , but had in his younger years suffered a most infamous Death . And this is the reason why the Jesuites , when they teach the Christian Religion among the refined Chineses , do not begin with the Doctrine of the Passion of Christ ; but argue first with them out of the Principles of natural Religion , and so at last come about to this Article of the Christian Faith . But whether these Fathers by this method are likely to be more successful than the Apostles I will not determine here . Way the meanest first converted . It may also be alledged , that God was pleased to deliver the common People among the Heathens , before great Men , out of their misery and darkness ; because the first were seduced by the latter , and upheld in their Superstition ; for these , tho' they were sensible of the Vanity of the Pagan Religion , yet did not do their utmost endeavours to search after a better . Wherefore God Almighty by first drawing away the common People from Paganism , did undermine the whole Structure , which was forced to fall of it self . Since the simplicity and credulity of the common People were the Foundation Stones of the Pagan Religion .

§ 9. Persecution of the first Church . The Christian Doctrine therefore having been most of all , at first , spread abroad among the common People , as I have said before , it was grievously oppressed and persecuted afterwards by the Roman Emperours ; for in the Territories of the Roman Empire it had its first beginning and chief increase . One of the main occasions of these Persecutions was their Ignorance of the true nature of this new Religion , or what was the main end of it ; since they saw the number of the Christians daily encrease , who all despised the Pagan Religion . The Emperours thought it below their high Station to make a due enquiry into the Foundation of this Doctrine , and there were very few among the first Christians that were fitly qualified to represent their Doctrine in due form to People of Quality . The Calumnies against the Primitive Christians . These therefore used to be led away by the false suggestions of the Enemies of the Christians , who insinuated to them , that the Christians in their nocturnal Assemblies , did practise all sorts of Debaucheries much after the manner as formerly used to be practised at the Festivals of Bacchus , or else that they were then Plotting against the State .

There were also not a few among the Romans , The Politick Reasons of the Romans against it . who being averse to any Innovation whatsoever , were of Opinion , that since the Roman Empire had stood in a flourishing Condition several Ages past under the antient Religion , the same ought not to be abrogated ; especially , they did think it in no ways becoming the common People to pretend to an Innovation and to more Wisdom than their Sovereigns . The Christians also having among themselves a certain Form of Ecclesiastical Government , this rendred them suspected to the Romans , who looked upon them as such that were for setting up a Faction against the State , and erecting a new Society in it , and so to divide the Empire , and at last make themselves Masters of it : Some also there were , who perceiving , that the more the numbers of the Christians increased , the less frequented were the Temples of the Heathens , and that the Roman Empire began to decline and received great shocks ; they perswaded themselves that these Misfortunes befel them , because those Gods through whose Assistance the Roman Empire arrived to the Pinacle of its Grandeur , were now despised among them , and therefore looked upon the Christians as an Atheistical Generation , endeavouring to over-turn the very Foundations of Religion . And because the Christians refused to adore the Idols , notwithstanding the Emperours Commands , and suffered the most prodigious Tortures and Death with constancy and even Joy ; they were treated like a perverse and obstinate sort of People by the Romans , who encreased their Cruelties to maintain their Authority against them . But no sufficient Reasons can be alledged for the justification of these Persecutions against the Christians , which ought to be considered no otherwise than unlawful Tyrannies , and pernicious Abuses of the supreme Civil Power . For their Subjects had received this Religion according to the express Command of God , which could nor ought not to be opposed by the Civil Power ; the Magistrates as well as the Subjects being obliged to receive it , except they would grosly sin against God Almighty . Neither could their Ignorance serve them for an excuse , since this being a new Doctrine , it was their Duty to take due information concerning the same , before they had sent the Innocent Christians to Execution , only , because they refu●ed to obey the Commands of their Sovereigns , which ought not to oblige them to Obedience in this Point . For no body ought to give Sentence of Death against any one before he is duly informed concerning the nature of the Crime , he is accused of .

§ . The first Church Government . 10. And because the Sovereigns did at first not concern themselves for the welfare of the Christian Religion , the Christians therefore did without their assistance constitute a Ministry and the outward Church Government among themselves , which was maintained among them as well as it could . For this is common to all Societies which are instituted without the consent of the Supream Magistrate , that the Members thereof are forced to agree among themselves , which way to order their Affairs best , and to Constitute certain Rules , and Governours for the management of the Societies : Else , according to the Rules of Policy , founded upon the Law of Nature , the outward Government of Religion belongs to the Sovereigns . But because the Magistrates would not perform their duty at that time , the Christians were obliged to Constitute Ministers of their own accord , who received their maintainance from the Charity of good Christians . And if any Errors did arise , or other matters happened of such consequence , that the same could not be decided by one assembly , several of these Assemblies used to consult among themselves concerning the matter in question , or leave the determination to an Assembly of such Mininisters as were next at hand . Tho it is certainly else not to be allowed in a State , that private persons should Constitute a Society among themselves , consisting especially of a considerable number ; yet the Assemblies and Synods of the antient Christians are not therefore to be deemed unlawful Meetings ; since their only aim was the exercise of their Religion , which being commanded them by God , ought not to have been opposed by any human Power . Neither is it reasonable , that because the Magistrates were careless both of their Duty and their own Salvation , the rest also who had knowledge of the true Religion , should lose the benefit of their Salvation ; against which no Civil Power ought to extend its Jurisdiction . And , as it is allowable for every body to defend himself with his own Strength and Weapons , if Magistrates either can or will not protect him ; so , if a Sovereign will not do his Office as to the preservation of my Soul , I have as much more right to take care of it without him , as the Soul is dearer to me than the Body ; and as by the exercise of the True Religion my Fellow Subjects are less endangered , than by a violent defense of my own person ; for no body by becoming a Subject in a Civil Society , does thereby renounce the priviledge of taking care for his Soul and Body . Otherwise no doubt is to be made , that if it had been the Will of God to introduce the Christian Religion by the Conversion of the Emperours and Kings , these would with their Commands have assisted the Apostles in their Office , thrown down the Temples of the Idols , abolished the Pagan Idolatry , and would according to the instruction of the Apostles , have Constituted the outward Church Government , and maintained it afterwards . For it is evident enough , that this has been the manner of proceeding , as to this point in other Countries , where the Christian Religion has been first introduced into the State , by the authority of their Sovereigns .

§ . What persuasions arise thence . 11. Nevertheless because the first Christians were obliged , when the Magistrates failed in their Duty , to regulate and Constitute a Church Government among themselves , this has occasioned the rise of several Errors , which are of no small consequence . For , some have from thence , endeavoured to make this inference , that the people , as they stand in opposition to Sovereignty , has an original and inherent Right to Elect Church Ministers . T is true a Minister ought not to be obtruded upon an Assembly against their will , especially if they have a lawful exception against him ; because he would edifie but little in his Station ; nevertheless , it is not from hence to be concluded , that , because some Assemblies have been obliged to provide themselves with Ministers when the Magistrates did neglect their Duty , therefore the same Right is ever since Originally in the People . For without this supposition an Assembly has as little right to call and Constitute a Church Minister , as to dispose of Publick Offices and Employments in the State . And if in some places the Common People or some others have such a Right , it is enjoyed either by connivance , or a concession from the Supreme Magistrate , whom we suppose to be a Christian and Orthodox . Some also have been endeavouring to draw from thence this Conclusion , viz. That the outward Church Government is separate and distinct from the Supreme Civil Power , and that it ought to be administred either by the whole Clergy , or else to depend absolutely on one single person of the Clergy ; so that , according to this supposition , there must be in each Christian State two distinct Bodies independent of one another , one of which must be called the Ecclesiastick ( Ecclesia ) the other the Politick State , ( Civitas ) and each of them to be Sovereign in its Government . But , tho this has been made use of sometimes , when Magistrates were quite negligent of their Duty , this ought not to be drawn into Consequence , when Magistrates are ready , duely to execute their Office . Neither does it follow , that the same power which belonged to the Apostles at that time when the Church was first to be Established , is now devolved to such Church Ministers as have not an immediate Vocation from God in the Established Church . For the Office of the Apostles was particular , and very different from the Church Ministry , as it is exercised now adays ; in like manner as the outward Church Government is very different from the Ministry . And as every lawful Church Minister is therefore not immediately an Apostle , so the King is therefore not immediately a Priest . And tho the Christian Religion ows its Original to God , and is above human reason ; nevertheless the Supreme Magistrate may be capable of having the outward direction over it , with the assistance of such persons as are best versed in such Affairs . And , from what has been said , this Conclusion may be made : viz. That the practice of the Primitive Church as to this Point of the outward Church Government , is not to be made a perpetual and universal Rule of the Church Government in a State , which is under the Jurisdiction of a Christian and Orthodox Magistrate . For that practice was accommodated to the Circumstances of their Affairs then : But , where both the whole People and the Sovereign have received the Christian Religion , the case is quite different , and implies not any necessity that the State should thereby become a Body with two Heads .

§ 12. Constantine could not quite alter the former State of the Church . After Constantine the Great had embraced the Christian Faith , the Church began to get another Face , the Sovereign being then fitly qualified to take upon him the outward Church Government . Nevertheless the said outward Church Government could not be so immediately and regularly ordered , as if from the first beginning the Sovereigns had received the Christian Religion ; For , there were a great many remnants left of the former provisional Church Government , which afterwards occasioned great abuses in the Western or Latin Church . For , it was scarce possible for these Emperours , who passed then but for Novices in the Christian Religion , to make use at first of their Power in Ecclesiastical Matters , and to bridle the Authority of the Bishops and Clergy , that were very backward to part with it . They were rather obliged to keep fair with them , and to make use of their assistance to Establish themselves in the Throne , since most of their Subjects being then become Christians paid a profound Veneration to their Priests . The first Christian Emperors also made use of several Ministers and Officers in their Courts , who were as yet Pagans ; wherefore it seem'd not just , that Matters concerning the outward Church Government , should be determined by a Council , whereof some Members were Heathens .

This was the reason why the Vocation of Bishops and other Ecclesiasticks was performed for the most part according to the Customs introduced before . Of making Bishops . And not only such Controversies as arose concerning certain Articles of Faith , but also of such as had a relation to the outward Order and Government of the Church , and all other differences of moment among the Clergy of the higher Rank were brought before the Councils , or the Assemblies of the Clergy where these did pretend alone to have the right to Preside and to give their Votes ; Tho it is certain that not only the right of calling them together belongs to the Sovereigns , who also for a considerable time have exercised that power ; but also the direction and Presidentship of such Assemblies : Of Presiding in Councils . whatever matter is to be debated there , does at least belong to the Prince , if their Decrees shall pass afterwards for , and have the power of a Law or a definitive Sentence in the State . Indeed the Supreme Magistrates , no more than the Clergy can pretend to a right of introducing new Articles of Faith , or of explaining the Scripture according to their own pleasure : Nevertheless , the whole Duty of a Christian being contained in the whole Scriptures , which God has commanded to be published for the benefit of Mankind , and not to be committed , like Sibylline Oracles , to the custody of certain Priests ; and since others as well as the Clergy have the opportunity to comprehend the Sense of the Holy Scripture , it seems not at all contrary to reason , that the Civil Magistrates should have at least the Supreme direction of these Assemblies , where matters concerning the different interpretations of the Scripture are to be debated . From hence also this benefit will accrue to the Publick , that thereby the extravagant Heats and immoderate Passions , which are commonly obvious in these Disputes , may be moderated , matters may be debated with prudence , and not stretched too high out of a fondness of contradicting , nor that any one by malicious interpretation of his Words and Opinion may fall under Slanders and Censures , or the Excommunication be thundred out without necessity against the innocent . And because the first Christian Emperours did either neglect this their Right , or had no opportunity of exercising it , this occasioned great confusion in some Councils : Abuses in the Council● . From hence also the Pope took an opportunity , after he had set himself above the Western Bishops and Councils themselves , to take upon him an Authority to decide Controversies even concerning Articles of Faith , to introduce such Canons or Ecclesiastical Laws in the Church , as he thought most proper for his Interest and State , and by pretending to the highest Jurisdiction to exempt the Church from the Jurisdiction of the Civil Magistrates : For when once this Opinion was established , that all these Matters did belong of right to the Clergy only , without having any respect to the Civil Power , the Pope did pretend to the same by the same Right , by which he had set himself above the Clergy and the whole Church .

§ . Of the Episcopal Jurisdiction . 12. Besides this it was the Custom among the Antient Christians , that they very seldom pleaded their Causes , according to the admonition of S. Paul , before the Pagan Judges : But , in case of differences among themselves , they used to refer the same to the decision of a Bishop , that by their Contests they might not give any occasion of Scandal to the Heathens , since it might seem unbecoming , that those who made profession of despising worldly Riches , should quarrel among themselves about the same . This Custom as it was very useful and praiseworthy at that time ; so because it was not Abrogated , but rather confirmed afterwards by the Christian Emperors , tho the Courts of Justice were then Governed by Christian Judges , the Bishops afterwards pretended to a formal Jurisdiction , which did not only derogate from the Authority of Temporal Judges , but also the Bishops were thereby diverted from performing such Duties as properly belonged to their Office . There was also another Custom among the first Christians , that if a scruple arose concerning nearness of Blood in Marriages , Concerning Marriages . they used to take the Opinion of the Priests in this Case , and if any differences did arise betwixt married People , it used to be referred to the Arbitration of the Priests ; who at the time also when the Nuptials were Celebrated , used to give them their Benediction and Pray with them . This , if in itself considered , very good beginning , furnish'd an occasion of great Abuses afterwards , the Pope having from hence taken a pretext to subject all Matrimonial Affairs , concerning Divorces , Nullities of Marriages , Successions , Inheritances , and the like , of the greatest Consequence , under his Jurisdiction , who , to render his pretensions the more plausible , did make Marriage a Sacrament .

Besides this , Concerning Excommunication . the first Christians were very desirous to recommend their Religion to the Heathens by a Holy and Innocent Life , especially since some sort of Vices were not punishable according to the Pagan Laws . Wherefore in the Primitive Church , if any one had given a Publick Scandal by his vicious Life , a certain Church Penance was laid upon him , which at the utmost did amount to this , that he was excluded from the Communion of the Christians . Which Custom as it is not unreasonable , so it may be of good use in a Christian State , provided the Civil Magistrate have the Supreme direction , and take care that such a Censure be not abused out of obstinacy or private ends and passion . Especially since these Censures have had such an influence upon Civil Societies , that in the Eighth Age no body would Converse with any one that was Excommunicated . And this Power ought not to be given to the absolute disposal of any one , except to the Sovereign , if you will not divide the Sovereignty . But in what manner the Popes have afterwards abused this Censure , and extended it even to the Excommunication of Emperors , Kings , and whole Commonwealths , and by forbidding the Publick Exercise of Divine Service , Absolving the Subjects from their Allegiance , and bestowing their Kingdoms upon others , have forced them to a compliance against their own Interest , is sufficiently known out of History . Yet in the Eastern Empire these Abuses did not grow up to the same height , for the Emperors at Constantinople did at least so far maintain their Authority against the Clergy , that they durst not pretend to dominere over them . Besides that the Eastern Bishop wanted an opportunity to set themselves one above the other , because the Bishops at Constantinople had no other Prerogative allowed him , but Precedency of Rank above the others without his Diocess , but not any Jurisdiction .

§ . The Origin of the Authority of the Popes . 14. But in the Western parts the Church afterwards took quite another Face , since the Bishop of Rome had projected a peculiar sort of a Monarchy , which by degrees he brought to perfection , and has not had its parallel ever since the memory of mankind , it being founded upon quite other Principles , and upheld by very different means from other States . The more influence this Monarchy has had for several hundred years together upon the States and Affairs of Europe , and has been maintained with great Zeal by one , and opposed by the other party , the more it will be worth our while , to dive into the first Origin and Constitution of it , and to alledge some reason , why in the last Age this Monarchy was reduced to a tottering condition , but has recollected its vigour in ours . From whence a wise Man also may be able to judge what success may be hoped for from the Projects of those , who are for reconciling the differences betwixt the Protestants and Papists . Wherefore , it may be said , that towards the increase of this Monarchy , so pernicious to the Supreme Civil Power , has not a little contributed , tho afar off , the Barbarity and ignorance , Barbarity and Ignorance contributed to it . which , after the decay of the Roman Empire , did spread itself over the Western parts . For bad Wares are best vented in the dark , or at least by a dim light : And an ignorant person is sooner prevailed upon to believe ridiculous Stories than a wise Man versed in all sorts of Sciences .

There were several causes , The Causes of this ignorance . which promoted this barbarity , which did degenerate afterwards into the worst sort of pedantry , ( whereas the former Age had been sufficiently instructed with learned Men. ) One of the principal ones was the Invasion made upon the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire by those Nations , who tho sufficiently Brave , were ignorant of Learning ; which occasioned for one or two Ages after great Changes in the Government , bloody Wars , horrible disorders , and all sorts of miseries in the Empire . And Learning being the product of Peace and Prosperity , it is little regarded in times of War , or during the Distractions of a State ; since then there is but little leisure time given for the use of Books . The Schools are commonly destroyed , and the Teachers obliged to make shift , where best they can , a Musquet being at such times of more use than a School Satchel . The School-Masters especially are forced to shut up Shop at such times , if the victorious Enemy is ignorant of Learning , and makes no account of Books . There are also some who affirm that the Clergy was accessary to this barbarism . For , because the Philosophers had under the Reigns of the Pagan Emperours proved very mischievous to them , and afterward under the Christian Emperours continued to oppose themselves against the Clergymen especially , these had conceived such a hatred against Philosophy , and against all such as professed it , that they not only infused the same into their Auditors , but also removed out of the Schools and took from the young Students , who were committed to their care , the Pagan Authors , under pretence that they might otherwise be again infected with the erroneous Principles of the Pagans , and that it could not but be sinful for Christians to read such Books as were filled every where with the names of the Pagan-Idols , which they would not have as much as named by Christians . They related a Story concerning S. Hierom how that he was whipped in a Vision with Rods , S. Hierom's Dream . because he used frequently to Read the Works of Cicero ; and about the year 400. after the Birth of our Saviour ; the Council of Carthage forbid the Bishops the reading of Pagan Authors . And Learning being in those miserable times become almost useless except to those who intended to profess Divinity , and the remnants of Learning being lodged therefore among the Clergy , the main Institution in the Schools was only directed for that Purpose , and the rest of the young Disciples were not very forward to dive much into the secrets of Antient Learning . And that Ignorance and Barbarism have greatly promoted the establishment of Popery is evident enough to those , who will consider that in a learned Age those Decretals which are ascribed to the first Popes , could never have passed Muster ; which nevertheless have been made use of to persuade the People that the Bishops of Rome have exercised an Authority from the very beginning of Christianity , to prescribe Laws ot the Christian World .

But when afterwards the times proved more favourable in Europe , The Pedantry introduced into the Schools . and the Popes perceived that some among the most considerable Nations of Europe could not be longer kept in a gross Ignorance , they introduced into the Schools , over which they had assumed the Supreme Direction , the most miserable sort of Pedantry , which is also maintained by their Creatures with great earnestness in their Schools to this very day . But above all the rest , it seems that the ignorance of the true Principles of Policy , has had a main stroke in laying the Foundation of Popery , for want of which they were not then duely instructed concerning the Foundation , Nature , and Perfection of the Supreme Civil Power , and that no State could be esteemed well Established , where the Supreme Civil Power was either divided or diminished . The Greek and Roman Polititians prejudicial to Monarchy . And the Grecian and Roman Politicians themselves had divulged most pernicious Doctrines concerning the division and mixture of the Supreme Power , whereby they had enamoured the People with an Aristocratical or Democratical sort of Government , but infused into them such a hatred against Monarchy , that it was a common Maxim among them , that the more they could incr●●ch upon the Authority of the Prince , the more it must turn to the advantage of the State . In this pernicious Opinion a great many were confirmed by the Tyrannical proceedings of the Emperours , who were mortally hated by most of their Subjects . It was therefore no great wonder , that at the time of this general Ignorance the knowledge of true Policy was not taught among the Christian Clergy , since it seem'd to them to be repugnant to their Profession . From hence it was , that , when by degrees the Foundation of the Ecclesiastical Sovereignty was laid , few did throughly understand of what Consequence this undertaking was , and how prejudicial it would prove to the Supreme Civil Power , when ever it could be brought to perfection . And we see even to this day , that in those Schools , which are under the care of the Popish Clergy , the Principles of true Policy are either neglected , or at least so disfigured that they may not be hurtful to the Authority of the Popes , but rather serve to support it .

§ . Why Rome was made the place of Residence of the Ecclesiastical Monarchy . 15. But the chief reason , why Rome was chosen for the place of Residence of the Ecclesiastical Monarchy , seems to be , that this City had a particular Prerogative of being the Capital City of the Roman Empire , where the Christian Religion at first had its r●se and increase . For what is related concerning S. Peter's Chair is nothing but a vain pretence , which may be easily seen from thence , that afterwards the Bishop of Constantinople had the next place assigned him after the Bishop of Rome , only because that City was then the place of Residence of the Emperour , and new Rome . And when afterwards the Western Roman Empire was come to decay , and the City of Rome had lost its former lustre , the Bishop of Constantinople disputed the precedency with the Roman Bishop . After the Persecutions , which the Christians had endured under the Pagan Emperours , were ceased , and they afterwards enjoyed their full Liberty , the Clergy began , under pretence of introducing a wholesome Order in the Church to Establish a particular sort of Government or Hierarchy , the Bishops having then begun to claim a great Prerogative above the Priests . The Bishops also were made subordinate to one another , so that commonly the inspection over the Bishops in a certain Province was committed to the Bishop of the Capital City of the same Province , Metropolitans . who being then called Metropolitans , did afterwards , viz. about the Eighth Century most of them assume the name of Archbishops . Four of them were most eminent above all the rest , viz. The Archbishops of Rome , Patriarchs . Constantinople , Antioch and Alexandria , these being then the four principal Cities of the Roman Empire ; and the Archbishop of Jerusalem was added to their number , because of the Antient Holiness of that City . And tho the Emperor Phocas , out of a spite against the Patriarch of Constantinople , who who would not approve of the Murther committed upon Mauritius , did grant the precedency to Boniface III. the then Bishop of Rome , who did thereupon take upon him the Title of Oecumenical Bishop ; yet this Prerogative did not extend any further than to bare Precedency , nor did imply any Power or Jurisdiction over the rest , which the other Patriarchs never acknowledged . And a considerable time before , when the Bishop of Rome pretended to put his Commands upon the Bishops of Africa , and for that purpose alledged a Canon of the Council of Oliva , which was falsified , they sent him back a very smart Answer .

And in the whole business there is no footsteps of a Divine Institution to be met withal , Of the Popes Power . the same being purely Human , nor can any reason be alledged , why the Bishop of Rome possesses the first Rank , other than why he of Antioch has the third among them . And because one State cannot prescribe Laws to another , therefore if any Prerogatives have been granted to the Bishop of Rome by the Roman Emperors , or the Antient Councils , ( which were nothing formerly but an Assembly of the Clergy of the Roman Empire , ) the same do not oblige any other State , nor can they extend beyond the Bounds and Jurisdiction of the antient Roman Empire . But if we put the Case that some Christian Princes or States have afterwards allowed to the Pope a certain power over the Church in their Dominions , this was either done because they either understood not the true nature of this Power , or because they were deceived by the Popes . In the first Case the same is to be deemed nothing else but a Treaty or Alliance with the Pope , the better to Administer the Church Affairs with the Pope's Direction . Such a Treaty or Alliance as it Originally proceeds from the Consent of that State ; so the same may be Annulled again , in the same manner as other Alliances are , whenever it proves prejudicial to the State , or the Pope begins to abuse the Authority granted him by the State . But if the Pope has either by Fraud or Imposition obtained his Power over other States , these so misguided and thus surprised States , have a right , as soon as they have discovered the Fraud , and are convinced of their Error , to shake off such an unjust Usurpation , and besides may demand satisfaction for the dammages sustained by these impostures .

§ . Further Increase of the Ecclesiastical Sovereignty . 16. Neither could the Bishops of Rome extend their Power over the Western parts all at once , but it was introduced from time to time , by degrees and by various Artifices , and under several pretences . For , when they had once fastened their Paws , they did not retreat till they had obtained their pretensions , tho they were several times denied admittance . They did very wisely take hold of that opportunity which presented itself , and was the chiefest of all in my jugdment , when the Emperors began to choose other places of Residence besides Rome , What contributed to it . since by their constant presence there they might easily have kept under the ambitious designs of the Bishops . For the Bishops of Constantinople , who questionless were no less proud and ambitious than those of Rome , could never gain this Point . The next thing which mainly contributed to this Power , was , that afterwards the Western Empire was divided into several new Kingdoms , erected by barbarous and Pagan Nations ; and these having been converted to the Christian Faith with the assistance of the Romish Church , thought themselves obliged to pay to her a profound respect , and to honor her as the most antient and the principal of the Western parts .

To recite all the particulars here is not for our purpose , The Popes Confirmation of Bishops . it will be sufficient to touch upon some of the main Points : it is therefore to be remarked , that since the Fifth Century the Bishops which lived on this side of the Alpes used to go to Rome to visit the Sepulchres of S. Peter and S. Paul out of a Superstition or a Devotion very common in those days , or because they thereby intended to testifie their firm adherency to the Christian Faith . This voluntary Devotion was afterwards by degrees changed into a necessity , and such as neglected it , used to receive severe rebukes . From hence it was easie for the Popes afterwards to pretend that the Bishops ought to receive their Confirmation from Rome . Some other Bishops and Churches also , that were Novices in comparison of the antient Roman Church used to refer themselves to , and ask the advice of the Church of Rome concerning some Matters of great Consequence , and the true use and interpretation of the Canons . And when they once perceived at Rome that their answers were taken as decisions , they began to send their Decrees before they were demanded , under pretence that Rome being the first Seat of the Christian Bishops it ought to take effectual care that the Canons and Ecclesiastical Laws were duely put in Execution . Under the same pretence they made themselves immediate Judges over the Differences arisen betwixt the Bishops , and incroaching upon the Right and Jurisdiction of the Metropolitans , used to depose such Bishops , as according to their Opinion had not a right Ordination ; or such as were accused of some enormous Crimes , they obliged to appear before them at Rome to defend their Cause . And if there were some that pretended to a Prerogative , or to obtain an Exemption from the Canons , they did Travel to Rome , where they were kindly received and incouraged in their demands , whereby the Staple of Dispensations and Favours to be granted , was establish'd at Rome : And if any one had lost his Cause before the ordinary Judge , he used to Appeal to Rome , where he was kindly received and incouraged . The French Historians relate , that , because the Emperor Henry had made the City of Arles the Capital City over seven Provinces , the Pope Constituted the Archbishop of the said City his Vicar in France , for fear lest the said Archbishop might by degrees attempt to make himself Patriarch of France . And this Archbishop chose rather to have the inspection , tho precariously , over seventeen Provinces , into which France was divided at that time , than to be the Head only of seven in his own right . This Man to add the more Authority to his Commision , did as much as in him was , endeavour to Establish the Popes Authority there .

Afterwards in the Eighth Century , when great Disorders and Debaucheries were become frequent among the Monks and Clergy , Of the Monk Winifred . an English Frier , whose name was Winifred , and who afterwards called himself Boniface , did out of a particular Zeal take upon himself the Reformation of the Manners and Lives of the Clergy ; and did endeavour to Establish the Christian Religion in several parts of Germany , but especially in Thuringia and Friezland . This Man , to acquire the greater Authority to himself , had entirely Devoted himself to the Interest of the Roman Chair , from whence he received the Episcopal Pall , and the Title of Archbishop of Mayence , having also been Constituted by Pope Gregory III. his Vicar , with full Power to call Councils , and to Constitute Bishops in those places which were by his assistance Converted to the Christian Faith , and with ample recommendations to those Nations , and to Charles Martel , the then Grand Master of France , that he should take him into his protection , which he very willingly did . And when afterwards his Son Carlomannus shewed a great forwardness to have the Church Discipline regulated , Boniface was very willing to take upon him this Office to the great advantage of the Roman Chair . He also at the request of Carlomannus call'd a Council in Germany , and at the request of Pepin several Synods in France , where Boniface always was President in the quality of Legat of the Roman Chair . In the first Council the Clergy signed a certain Confession of Faith , whereby they obliged themselves , not only to maintain the Catholick Faith , but also to remain in constant Union with the Roman Church , and to be obedient to the Successours of S. Peter . This Boniface also was the first , who put it upon the Bishops of Germany to receive the Episcopal Pall from the Pope , who sent it to the Bishops of France without their request , thereby to unite them with the Roman Chair . And when once these Ornaments were become customary amongst them , they were put upon them afterwards as of absolute Necessity , and the Episcopal Function was forbidden to be exercised by them before they had received these Ornaments .

Besides this , Annals . the Popes assumed to themselves an Authority of giving leave to the Bishops to remove from one Episcopal See to another , and obliged all the Western Bishops to receive their Confirmation from Rome , for which they were obliged to pay a certain Summ of Money as an acknowledgement , which was since converted to Annals . The Popes also by making void the Decisions of the provincial Synods or Assemblies , overthrew their Authority ; wherefore when every body plainly perceived that the Decrees of these Assemblies could produce no other Effects but to be continually annulled by the Popes , without as much as hearkening to any Reasons , they were by degrees quite abolished . Pope Gregory VII . also forced the Bishops to swear an Oath of Fealty to the Pope , and by a Decree forbid that none should dare to condemn any one that had appealed to the Pope . They were also not forgetful in sending Legates or Nuncios to all places , whose business was , to exercise in the name of the Pope the same Authority which had formerly belonged to the Bishops , Metropolitans and Provincial Assemblies .

§ 17. Riches of the Church . This growing Ecclesiastical Sovereignty was the more prejudicial to the supreme Civil Power , the more the Church daily increased both in Numbers and Riches . The first Foundation of the Wealth of the Church was laid by the Liberality and Charity of Princes and other great Men , who were of Opinion , that they did a very agreeable Service to God Almighty if they were liberal and bounteous towards his Church and the Clergy . And after they had once perswaded the People , that by doing good Works , among which the Gifts and Donations for Pious uses had the first place they could and must deserve Heaven from God Almighty ; this Liberality was increased to a high degree . Yet the voluntary Contributions of the People not being able to satisfy the avarice of the Clergy , which increased together with their Riches , other ways and artifices were found out to empty the Peoples Purses , and a great many unnecessary Institutions introduced which were to be purchased for Money . Then it was that the saying of Masses for the living and the dead , Purgatory , Indulgences , Dispensations , Pilgrimages , Jubilees , and the like , were introduced without measure . They had besides this , always a watchful Eye over such as were at the point of death , since they knew that Men were commonly not so addicted at that time to their worldly Riches , which they were else to leave to their Heirs who often rejoiced at their Death : Nay , they were not ashamed to make a profession of begging .

Among other Tricks , The Policies of the Popes in the Croisade . the Popes did in the Eleventh and the following Century turn the Croisadoes to their great Advantage . For in these expeditions after the People had once received the Sign of the Cross to assist in the recovery of the Holy Land , the Popes pretended to the supreme Command and Direction ; they took the Persons and Estates of such as had received the Cross under their particular Protection , exempting them thereby from the Civil Jurisdiction both in Civil and criminal Causes , and rendring their Dispensations and Indulgences more frequent and flourishing than before ; the Pope's Legates did dispose of such Alms , Collections and Legacies as were given for that purpose , and under the same pretext received the Tenths from the Clergy ; nay , even pretended to put their Commands upon Princes to receive the Cross themselves . These they imployed afterwards against such as were declared by them Scismaticks or Hereticks , whose possessions they used to confiscate and bestow upon those who had proved serviceable to them , without asking the Advice of the Sovereign , who durst not but invest these with those Countries that were presented to them by so high a Hand .

§ 18. Multitude of Ecclesiasticks No less did the number of Ecclesiasticks increase proportionably to the increase of the Riches of the Church , because there were not wanting such as were willing to have a share of them without taking much pains . For it was not thought sufficient to have an ordinary Minister , Chaplain and others necessary for the exercising of Divine Service belonging to each Church , but also each Cathedral had a Chapter of Canons , and there were great numbers of Persons of high and low Quality that were forward in taking upon them these profitable and in no ways but then some Functions , because the inconveniency of Celibacy which the Pope in the Eleventh and the following Century forced upon the Ecclesiasticks not without great trouble and reluctancy was sufficiently recompenced by the Honours and Revenues which they enjoyed quietly in their several Stations .

Besides , Fryars and Nu●● . an innumerable multitude of Fryars and Nuns settled themselves all over Christendom . This sort of People began first to appear in the World at the time of the great Persecutions , but in the Fourth and following Centuries did multiply their numbers to a prodigious degree . In the beginning they lived upon what they could get by their Handy-work ; a great many used to give their Goods to the Poor , tho' voluntarily , and lived under the Direction of the Bishops , according to a Discipline prescribed in the Canons . In the Seventh Century especially , Fryars and Nuns were much in vogue in those Western Parts , which were every where filled up with Monasteries and Nunneries built by the encouragement of Princes and other great Men that endowed them with great Revenues . But when the Charity and Liberality of the People seemed almost to be exhausted by the great Charges bestowed upon so many rich Monasteries , and yet there were not enough to contain all such as were desirous to enter into this sort of Life ; at last in the Thirteenth Century the Order of the Mendicant-Fryars was erected : Mendicants . These made a great shew of Holiness , because they would not be taken for such as were forward to choose a Monastick Life to live in plenty , but for such as had taken a resolution to bid farewel to all the Pleasures of this World , and at the best , The Motives to embrace this manner of Life . maintain themselves by Alms. A great many have embraced this severe Order , out of an Opinion of a particular Holiness and Merit , which they believed did belong to this Order , or rather an Ecclesiastick Ambition ; the Pride of Mankind being so great and natural to some , that they did not think the Commands of God sufficient , but rather would receive Heaven from God Almighty as a desert than as a gift , and were ambitious of having a preference before others , even in the other Life . Some there are who embrace a Monastick Life out of desperation , some out of laziness . A great many are by their Parents and Relations sent into a Monastery out of Superstition or Poverty , and to prevent the ruin of a Family by the division of the Estate among a great many Children . And out of these Fryars the Pope has chosen his Regiment of Guards , which he lays in Garrison not only to plague the Laiety , but also to curb the Bishops and the rest of the Clergy . It was for this reason that the Pope did uphold the Fryars with so much zeal against the Bishops , in the Tenth Century , especially , when they withdrawing themselves from the Jurisdictions of the Bishops , did submit themselves to the immediate Authority of the Pope . And the Popes know so well how to handle them , that tho' there are great Jealousies on foot betwixt their several Orders , as for example , betwixt the Franciscans and Dominicans , they nevertheless keep so even a ballance betwixt them , and so equally dispose of their Favours towards them , that one Order may not oppress another , or that any of them may have any reason to complain of the Pope's partiality .

These Fryars also used to interfere often with the regular Clergy , Prejudicial to the regular Clergy . as pretending to a great share in the Legacies and Burials of the richer sort , to the direction of Consciences and the administration of the Sacraments . From hence did arise a continual envy and hatred from the Bishops and regular Clergy against these Fryars , who being upheld by the Pope's Favour , were not concerned at their anger . And therefore whenever any Bishop attempted any thing against the Pope's Authority , these Fryars with their clamour and noise pursued him every where like so many Hounds , and rendred him odious to the common People , amongst whom they were in great veneration , through their outward appearance of Holiness ; and from thence it came to pass , that the Bishops who opposed the Pope's Authority never could make a great Party among the common People . Besides this , the Fryars always kept a watchful Eye over the actions of the Bishops , giving continual advices concerning them to their Generals residing at Rom● , whereby by the Popes were enabled to oppose timely any design intended against their Authority . And these Fryars proved the main obstacle , why the Bishops could not so effectually oppose the Pope's Authority which he assumed over them , so that being destitute of means to help themselves , they were forced to follow the current . Tho' it is also certain , that some of them were very well satisfied with it , as believing that they did participate of the Grandeur of their supreme Head , and that thereby they should be exempted from the Jurisdiction of the Civil Magistrates , which was more dreadful to them than a foreign Jurisdiction exercised by those of their own Order , from whom they had all the reason to expect more Favour . Nevertheless it is also undeniable , that a great many Bishops , especially among those on this side the Alps bear a grudge to the Pope's Authority to this very day , which evidently appeared at the Council of Trent , where the French and Spanish Bishops did insist very closely upon this Point , that it might be decided , whether Bishops are not obliged to Residence by the Law of God , which is also the Opinion of the Jansenists ( as they are called ) in France and the Netherlands . The more refined sort did easily perceive what their Intention was by making this Proposition . For if God had commanded them this , it must also be a consequence that he had given them means and instructed them with sufficient Power ( qui dat jus ad finem , dat jus ad media ) and that therefore they were not obliged to go to Rome first , and to purchase an Authority to exercise their Function . The Pope met with great Difficulties before he could surmount this obstacle at the Council of Trent , wherefore it is very likely that this will be the last Council , since the Pope will scarce hereafter put his Grandeur to the hazard and the decision of such an Assembly ; which also seems now to be of no further use , since the Jesuits and some others have taught that the Pope is infallible and above Councils , from whom they ought to receive a confirmation , and a binding or obliging Power . But let it be as it will , the Bishops are for their own sakes obliged not to withdraw themselves from the Popes subjection , since thereby they would fall under the Jurisdiction of the Civil Power , and would be obliged to seek for Protection from their Sovereigns , who must be Potent Princes , if they should protect them against the Pope ; wherefore they are now forced to choose the least of two Evils .

§ 19. How the Church was freed from all Power over it . Tho' the Church was never so abounding in Riches and in great numbers of Ecclesiasticks , yet was it absolutely necessary , that the Pope if the intended to establish an Ecclesiastical Monarchy , should not be in any ways dependent on any Temporal Prince ; and that he should reside in a place which was free from all subjection to any Civil Power but himself ; that he also should be possessed of such an Estate , as might be sufficient to maintain his Grandeur , and not to be liable to be taken away from him upon any pretence whatsoever ; where also his adherents might find a safe retreat whenever they should be pursued by the Civil Power . To establish this was a business of a considerable time and labour , neither could it be effected without great opposition , and that by a great many Artifices and knavish Tricks . And it is certain that as long as there was an Emperour in the Western Empire , and as long as the Empire of the Goths lasted in Italy , the Bishops of Rome could not so much as think of this Greatness . How the Popes withdrew themselves from their subjction to the Emperours . But this having been destroyed under the Emperour Justinian , and Rome and Italy made a Province of the Grecian Empire , then it was that the Popes took their opportunity to exempt themselves from the Jurisdiction of these Emperours , whose Authority was mightily decayed in Italy , partly by the ill management of their Governours at Ravenna , partly by their own weakness and want of Strength ; for the Lombards were Masters in Italy , and in the times of Justinian II. one Emperour was for ruining the other . Besides this , some of these Emperours were against the adoring of Images , and Leo Isaurus quite ejected them out of the Churches , because this adoration was wholly degenerated into Idolatry , and as to the outward appearance , the Saints were more regarded than God himself . This undertaking was very vehemently opposed by Pope Gregory II. who stood up for the Images , partly because the Roman Chair found this Superstition very advantageous ; partly because the Pope took it very ill that the Emperour should undertake a Reformation in Matters of Religion without his Knowledge and Consent , and that at that time when he was busie to introduce the Ecclesiastical Monarchy in the Western parts ; partly also , because he thought to have met with an opportunity to withdraw himself from the Jurisdiction of the Grecian Emperours . The better to obtain his Aim , he stirred up the Romans and Italians , who hitherto had been under the Obedience of the Emperours , to refuse to pay them Tribute ; and the Governour residing at Ravenna , endeavouring to maintain the Emperour's Right , was slain in a Tumult . Whereby the Jurisdiction and Power of the Grecian Emperours was abolished in those parts of Italy , and these Countries began to be free and independent on any Foreign Jurisdiction .

§ 20. The Pope seeks for Protection in France . By these means the Pope had freed himself from the Jurisdiction of the Emperours of Constantinople , but not long after he was threatened by another Enemy , who being nearer at hand , was likely to prove more troublesome to him than formerly the Emperours who lived at so considerable a distance . For the Kings of the Longobards endeavoured first to make themselves Masters of those parts which were fallen off from the Emperour , and afterwards of all Italy . They had already taken Ra●enna , and there was none left in Italy who was able to stop their Victories . The Popes were then hard put to it , and knew not where to seek for Protection except of the Kings of France , who at first endeavoured to finish these Differences by an amicable Composition , but the Longobards not being willing to rest satisfied therewith , they resolved by force of Arms to maintain the Italian Affairs . They were easily prevailed upon to undertake this Business , not only because Pope Zachary had approved of the Proceedings of Pepin , who having abdicated the lawful King , was from a Grand-Marshal become King of France ; but also they had thereby an opportunity offered them to make Conquests in Italy , whereof the French Nation has been always very ambitious . Pepin and afterwards Charles the Great , having been so Fortunate in their Wars against the Longobards , as to Conquer their whole Kingdom ; they gave to the Papal Chair all that Tract of Land which had been formerly under the Jurisdiction of the Grecian Governours . There are some who are of Opinion , that to obtain this Gift , the Pope made use of the fictitious Donation of Constantine the Great , which in those barbarous times was easily imposed upon the ignorant World . Besides this , the French Kings had great Obligations to the Pope for the above-mentioned reason , and were also fond of acquiring the name of pious Princes , by bestowing liberal Presents out of other Mens Possessions . For it was in those Days a common Custom , that Men of all degrees made it their Business to out-do one another in Liberality towards the Clergy . Nay , the Princes used to grant them these Possessions without any incumbrances , that thereby the Ecclesiasticks might be sure to enjoy free possession of what they had bestowed upon them . These extravagant Donations were none of the least Causes why the Clergy afterwards did labour with so much vehemency to withdraw themselves from the Jurisdiction of the Civil Magistrates , as fearing that these extravagant Donations and Grants might be recalled and declared void by their Successours . Wherefore it has been always a Maxim of Wise Men. that Princes by granting extravagant Priviledges and Gifts , made their Subjects rather Jealous than Friends ; since those who have obtained them , living always in fear that the same either in part or wholly , may be taken away again , imploy all means so to establish themselves as to be in a capacity to maintain themselves therein in spite of the Prince . Those Learned Men who are of an impartial Judgment , take it for granted , that the Pope did pretend to exercise a Sovereign Power over these Countries granted to him by the French Kings , but that the People refused the same , as being for maintaining their Liberty ; and thinking it very odd , that the Pope who was an Ecclesiastical Person , should pretend to be also a Worldly Prince . When therefore the Romans mutinied against Pope Leo III. he was forced to seek for Assistance from Charles the Great , who restored the Pope . But on the other hand , the Pope and People of Rome proclaimed Charles Emperour , whereby he was put into possession of the Sovereignty over that part of Italy , which formerly belonged to the Jurisdiction of the Governours at Ravenna , and the other remnants of the Western Empire ; so that the Pope afterwards enjoyed these Countries under the Sovereign Jurisdiction of the Emperour , who therefore used to be called the Patron and Defender of the Church , till the Reign of the Emperour Henry IV.

§ 21. The Pope withdraws himself from the Obedience of the Emperours , and establishes an Ecclesiastical Sovereignty . But the Popes began at length to grow weary of the Imperial Protection , because the Emperour's Consent was required in the Election of a Pope , and if they were mutinous , the Emperours used to check them , and sometimes turn them out of the Chair . To exempt themselves from this Power of the Emperours over them , the Popes have for a long time together imployed all their Cunning and Labour before they could obtain their Aim . They used to make it their constant Business to raise intestine Commotions against the Emperours , sometimes in Germany , sometimes in Italy , thereby to diminish their Power and Authority . The Bishops , especially in Germany , were always very busie , as being dissatisfied that they were dependent on the Emperours , who nominated the Bishops , and therefore joyned with the Pope to assist him in setting up the Ecclesiastical Sovereignty . The Reign of the Emperour Henry IV. furnished them with an opportunity to put in execution their Design , this Emperour by his Debaucheries and ill management of Affairs , living in discontents and continual broils with the Estates of Germany ; and as soon as Gregory VII . who was before called Hildebrand , a proud , resolute and obstinate Man got into the Chair , he began to exclaim against the Emperour , that the granting of Church-Benefices did not belong to him , since he made a Traffick with them , and sold them to all sorts of People whom he installed before they had taken Holy Orders . Pope Gregory excommunicates Hen IV. And when the Emperour resolved to maintain his antient Right and Title , he excommunicated him , and stirred up the Bishops and the Estates of Germany against him , who made him so much work , that he was obliged to resign his Right of Constituting of Bishops . The Pope under this pretext , did not only intend to exempt the Bishops from the Emperour's Jurisdiction , but the main point was to make himself Sovereign over Italy , and to make all the other Princes submit to the Pope's Authority . And some are of Opinion , that this Design might have been put in execution , considering that Europe was at that time divided into so many Principalities , and most of these Princes being not very Potent , might either out of a Devotion , or to avoid falling under the Jurisdiction of more Potent Princes , submit themselves under the Pope's protection and pay him Tribute . It is therefore not improbable , that if three or four Popes had succeeded one another , instructed with sufficient Capacity to cover their Design with the Cloak of Holiness , and in the mean while to uphold the Interest of the People against the Oppressions of their Princes , the Popes might have made themselves absolute Sovereigns both in Temporal and Spiritual Affairs .

Neither did the Pope only pretend to free himself from the Emperour's Jurisdiction over him , The Pope endeavours to subject the Emperour . but also endeavoured to make him his Subject ; for he pretended to be his Judge , he summon'd him before him to make answer to the Complaints of his Subjects , excommunicated him , and declared him to have forfeited his Right and Title to the Empire . And tho' his Son , the Emperour Henry V. did endeavour to recover what was forcibly taken away from his Father , and made Pope Paschal a Prisoner , whom he forced to restore to him the right of Constituting of Bishops , yet were the whole Clergy in Europe so dissatisfied hereat , and raised such Commotions , 1122. that at last he was obliged to resign the same again into the Pope's hands .

Much about the same time there were great Disputes concerning this Point in England , Disputes in England about the investiture of B●shops . which were composed in such a manner , that the King should not pretend to the Power of investing of Bishops , but that these should do Homage to him . 1107. The last of which the Pope was very unwilling to grant , who would fain have had the Bishops to be quite independent of the King , which was the reason why he expresly forbid the Bishops in France to follow this Example ; but King Lewis VI. and his Successours did maintain their Right with so high a Hand , that the Popes were never able to establish their pretended Right in France . Neither did the Popes think it advisable to fall out at once with the Emperour and France , but that it would be more secure to have one at hand to uphold them against the other ; especially , the Popes were not so much for weakening of France , because they were not so nearly concerned with that Kingdom , as for humbling the Emperours that were Potent in Italy , and pretended to the Sovereignty over the City of Rome . Neither was Germany so intirely united as France , and most Princes of Europe being then very jealous of the Grandeur of the Empire , were very willing to joyn with the Pope against the Emperours , under pretence of upholding the Authority of the Holy Church and Papal Chair . 'T is true , the two Emperours Frederick I. and II. did afterwards endeavour to restore the antient Imperial Right , but were not able to attain their aim , especially since Italy was divided into the two Factions of the Guelfs and Gibellines , the first whereof were for the Pope , the latter for the Emperour , which caused such a Confusion in Italy , that the Emperours could never afterwards reduce Italy to an entire Obedience . And because after the death of the Emperour Frederick II. the whole Empire was during that long vacancy of the Throne , put into great Confusion and Disorders , the succeeding Emperours found so much work in Germany , that they were not in a Condition to look after Italy , whereby the Pope had sufficient leisure given him to make himself Sovereign both as to his own Person , and over the Possessions belonging to the Church of Rome .

§ 22. The Pope pr●tends to a Power over Princes even to depose them . But the Pope not being contended to have attained this degree of Grandeur , quickly set on foot another Doctrine , which was of far greater consequence , viz. That the Pope had an indirect Power over Princes , that it belonged to him in his own Right to take Care how they governed and managed their Affairs . For tho' they did not expresly pretend in gross terms that Princes did depend on them in Civil Affairs , yet they believed that the supreme Ecclesiastical Power did entitle them to an Authority to judge concerning the Actions of Princes , whether the same were good or bad , to admonish them , to correct them , and to command what was fitting , and to forbid what was unfitting to be done . If therefore Princes waged War against one another , the Pope pretended to have an Authority to command a Truce to be made betwixt them , to bring their Differences before him , and refer them to his Decision , not without threatnings that he would not only excommunicate them in their Persons , but also forbid the exercise of Divine Service and administration of the Sacraments throughout their whole Kingdom . They also did believe it belonged to their Office to obviate all publick Scandals , to defend such as were oppressed , and to see Justice done to all the World . It was from this pretension , that they received the Complaints of all such as pretended to be oppressed ; nay , they went further , for they sometimes took information concerning the Injuries done by Princes to their Subjects , and concerning some Impositions laid upon the People , whereby the People thought themselves aggrieved , which they forbid to be levied upon them under the penalty of Excommunication . Sometimes they used to declare the Possessions of such as were excommunicated , forfeited , exposing their Persons to danger , and releasing the Subjects from their Oaths of Allegiance , under pretence that the Government of a Christian People ought not to be trusted to the management of such as had rebelled against the Church . This has been attempted against a great many Crowned Heads , and put in execution against some of them .

This abominable pretension ( as they perswade the ignorant ) was founded upon their fictitious Decretals upon which they have built their Canon-Law , How they colour over this Power . which grants to the Pope an unlimited Power over Christians , by vertue of which , he may as the Common Father , send out his Commands to all Believers , and admonish them concerning all such Matters as belong to Religion and their Salvation , and in case of Disobedience , lay punishments upon them . For that the Predecessours of Gregory VII . did not make use of this Power ( they say ) was because the preceeding Emperours , either kept themselves within their bounds , or else the Popes lived an ungodly Life . To give specious colours to these pretensions , they made use of the Examples of Ambrose and Theodosius ; they used to relate how the Spanish Bishops had obliged King Wamba by way of penance to lay down the Crown : As also , how the Bishops of France had deposed Lewis Surnamed the Pious , who afterwards could not recover his Crown without the Consent and Authority of another Assembly of Bishops . They alledged for another Example , how Fulco then Archbishop of Rheims had threatened Charles Sirnamed the Simple , to absolve his Subjects from their Oaths of Allegiance , if he made an Alliance with the Normans , who were then Pagans . They supposed that it was without question , that the Pope's Power did extend it self beyond that of all other Bishops , since it was not limited by any thing , except by the express Canons of Councils and Decrees of the Popes , wherein nothing was contained against this Power of deposing of Kings ; and ( they say ) it was not to be supposed that they could have been forgetful of this point . And because they had assumed a Power to give the Name and Title of a King to some who either prompted by their Ambition or Superstition had begged the same from them , they supposed that by the same Right , they might take away the Crown from such as they esteemed unworthy of wearing it .

They also had forbid to marry within the seventh degree of Consanguinity , and the fourth of Affinity , whereby they often met with an opportunity to be troublesome to Princes : For because it seldom happened among those of so high a Rank , but that one side or other was within one of these degrees , they stood in continual fear lest the Pope should disturb their Negotiations , except they humbly begged for a Dispensation ; and in both cases the Popes knew how to make their advantage of them . Lastly , the Popes having abundance of Business to dispatch , did thereby draw the best and most refined Wits to their Courts , who used to go thither to look for Imployment , and to perfect themselves in the great School of Europe . These were always for promoting the Pope's Interest and Designs , from whom they expected their promotion ; besides that , the whole Clergy did adhere to him as to their supreme Head . Pope Boniface VIII . did clearly give us to understand his meaning at the Jubilee kept in the year 1300. when he appeared sometimes in the Habit of an Emperour , sometimes in that of a Pope , and caused two Swords to be carried before him as the Ensigns of the Ecclesiastical and Civil Power .

§ 23. The Papal Authority opposed . But the Popes could not long enjoy this unsufferable Usurpation in quiet , for it was so often called in question , till they were obliged to draw in their horns , and to make their pretensions a little more plausible . 'T is true , in the Business with the Emperours , the Henrys and the Fredericks , they got the upper hand ; nevertheless , they met betwixt while often times with very indifferent entertainment , and such things were sometimes publish'd against them as were little to their Honour , and from whence it might easily be judged by those that were impartial , that not the Glory of God , but their own Grandeur was the chief aim of their undertaking . But when Boniface III. pretended to play the same Game with Philip Surnamed the Handsome , King of France , he watched his opportunity so well , and gave him such a blow , that the Pope felt the smart of it . And to avoid the Scandal which the common People might take at these so severe proceedings against the Pope , use was made of this pretext , that what was done against his Person , was not intended against the Vicar of Jesus Christ , but against a pernicious Person , who by unlawful means was got into the Chair , and that a general Council ought to be called to free the Church from his Oppressions .

But the ensuing Schisms have proved the most pernicious to the Popes Authority , The Schisms much weakned their Power . as also the double Elections which have been made at several times , when the Cardinals being divided , set up two Popes at once , who used by turns to excommunicate and revile one another , and to maintain themselves in the Chair , were fain to flatter the Kings , and acknowledge that they were beholding to them . This Division was an evident sign , that the Elections of these Popes had not been guided by the Holy Spirit , but been influenced by some ill Designs and Intrigues . Wherefore it was also the Opinion of the Wiser sort , that in such a case , neither of them ought to be acknowledged as Pope , but that a new one ought to be chosen , which was also put in execution at the Council of Constance . The first Schism arose , according to my Opinion in the year 1134. or as some will have it 1130. when after the death of Honorius II. Innocent II. and Anacletus were both chosen Popes . And tho' the first had the greater party on his side , yet did the King of Sicily and Duke of Aquitam , vigorously uphold the latter ; and his adherents did after his death choose another in his stead , who called himself Victor , with whom Innocent made an agreement , so that he voluntarily relinquished his pretension , and acknowledged him his Superiour . But after the death of Adrian IV. two Popes were again elected at one time , viz. Alexander III. and Victor IV. To the first adhered France , England , and Sicily ; to the latter , the Emperour Frederick I. all Germany and the Clergy of Rome And after his death , those of his party chosen three successive Popes , all whom Alexander out-lived . These used to make a common Trade to excommunicate and revile one another , and each of them were fain to behave themselves towards their Protectours , more like a Client than a Master . But much greater was the Schism after the death of Gregory IX . when again two Popes were elected at once , whereof one resided at Rome , the other at Avignon . This Schism lasted through several successions , near the space of Forty Years ; during which time , both parties excommunicated one another very frequently , and committed great Cruelties . France , Scotland , Castile , Savoy and Naples , were of the side of the Pope that resided at Avignon , but all the rest of Christendom declared for the other at Rome . Both parties took great pains to set out the great numbers of Saints that were of their party , and what Miracles and Revelations were made concerning their approbation . And both sides knew how to produce such Reasons , that at last , there was no other remedy left them but to force both the Anti-Popes to abdicate themselves at the Council of Constance , and to choose a new one in their stead . The last Schism of all arose when the Council of Basil having deposed Eugenius IV. 1433. did in his stead elect Felix V. Pope , unto whom the former would not submit . And these Dissentions were continued till after the death of Eugenius , when Nicholas V. was chosen in his stead , unto whom Felix for quiet sake , did resign the Chair upon very advantageous terms in the year 1488.

It is very easily to be imagined how these Divisions did expose to publick view the Secrets of these Fathers . Hence an occasion taken to bridle the Popes Power by general Councils . Since from hence an opportunity was taken to make use of the Assistance of the Councils to bridle the Popes , and from the Popes to appeal to these which were now made use of to terrify the Popes withal , whenever they pretended to transgress their bounds . The Popes could the less refuse to acknowledge the Power of the Councils at that time , because Gregory VII . himself after the quarrel betwixt him and the Emperour was renewed , had proposed to call a Council to be held in a place of Security , where both Friends and Foes , both the Clergy and Laiety might meet , to judge whether he or the Emperour had broke the Peace , and to concert Measures how to re-establish the same . Gelasius II. who had Differences with Henry V. made the same Declaration , adding withal , that he would rest satisfied with what Judgment his Brothers the Bishops should give who were constituted Judges in the Church by God Almighty , and without whom , he could not decide a Business of this nature . So Innocent III. had writ , that he would not undertake to decide the Marriage Controversie betwixt Philip Augustus and Engebourgh of Denmark without consulting a general Council ; for if he should attempt any such thing , he might thereby forfeit his Office and Dignity . Which words seemed intimate , that a Pope for mismanagement might be deposed . And when afterwards these and the like words were made use of against the Popes , it was then too late to endeavour to make them pass for Compliments ; since it proves often dangerous to be too modest in matters of such consequence . Wherefore the Council of Pisa in the year 1409. did depose the two Anti-Popes , Benedict XII and Gregory XII . in whose stead they chose another , viz. Alexander V. In the same manner the Council of Constance did not only confirm the deposition of these two Popes , but also turned out John XXIV . who was made Pope after the death of Alexander V. In the same manner the Council of Basil did with Eugenius IV. and besides this made a Decree that neither at the Court of Rome , neither in other places any mony should be taken for the dispatches of Ecclesiastical Affairs . All which as it shook the very Foundation of the Papal Chair , so it was not to be admired that the Popes were very averse afterwards to call the Council of Trent , and were forced to make use of all their cunning , that nothing might pass there to the prejudice of their Grandeur , and that since that time they have bid farewel to Councils for ever .

§ . Concerning the Seat of the Popes being transferred to Avignon . 24. Among other divisions , this has proved very prejudicial ( as it seems ) to the Authority of the Popes , that Clement V. did transfer the Papal Chair from Rome to Avignon , as I suppose , upon instigation of Philip Surnamed the Handsom , King of France , who having had great differences with Boniface VIII . was Excommunicated by him . To render this ineffectual , he thought it the most proper way if the Pope resided in France , and that thereby the like would be prevented for the future ; since it was very probable that the greatest part of the Cardinals hereafter would be taken out of the French Nation . The Popes made this City their constant place of Residence for seventy years together , not to mention that some of the Anti-Popes also did Reside there . This changing of the Seat carry'd along with it several inconveniencies , which proved very prejudicial to the Ecclesiastical Monarchy . For the Pope's Authority was among other things also founded upon this belief , that S. Peter had been at Rome , and by his presence had Communicated a particular Prerogative and Holiness to that Chair , and whether the same could be transferred to Avignon seemed somewhat doubtful to a great many ; besides this , the Pope was then for the most part obliged to comply with France , and to live as it were at the Discretion of the French Kings . Tho also the French , who then thought they had a great Catch , have since complained , that they got little else by the presence of the Roman Court than Simony , and another abominable Vice not fit to be named . Besides this the Court of Rome being then kept among Strangers , as it were , out of its Natural Element its Faults were the sooner discovered , and the whole the more despised . This removal also of the Court of Rome proved very prejudicial to the Revenue of the Church in Italy . For after the Authority of the Emperors in Italy came to decay , each State was for living free , and being Sovereign itself , and the Factions of the Guelfs and Gibellines caused most horrid distractions . And the Authority of the Pope being vanish'd by his absence , they made bold with the Church Possessions . Most Cities of the Ecclesiastical State upon the persuasions of the Florentines had sent away the Popes Legats , and acknowledged no Sovereign . The Emperor Lewis , Surnamed the Bavarian , who was at Enmity with the Pope , but in great esteem among the Inhabitants of the Ecclesiastical State , did pretend to the Sovereignty over the same , as being a Fief of the Empire , which he granted to such as upheld his Party against the Pope . The Patrimony of the Church was then but very slender , and tho the Popes recovered part of it afterwards , they were obliged to leave most in Possession of what they had got . But the City of Rome was nevertheless at last forced to submit to the Popes power , which it had resisted so long , when Boniface IX . in the year 1393. put on the Bridle , by building the Castle of S. Angelo . And Alexander VI. was the chief cause that the Ecclesiastical State was reduced under the Obedience of the Popes . This Pope had a Natural Son , whose name was Caesar Borgia , but who commonly is called Duke of Valence , from the Dukedom of Valence , which he got with his Lady Charlotte d' Albret . The Pope being very ambitious to make this his Son a great Prince in Italy , proposed this expedient to him , that he must drive out these petty Lords , which were then in Possession of the Ecclesiastical State , and when he had made himself Master of these places , he would confirm him in the Possession of them for ever . He succeeded very well in this Enterprise , having made away with most of these petty Lords , some by Force , some by Treachery ; for he used to stick at nothing , alledging , that whatever he did could not be done amiss , since he had received his Commission from his Father , who was endowed with the Holy Ghost . And being reduced to the utmost want of mony , wherewith to pay his Soldiers , he and his Father agreed to Poison the richest Cardinals at a Feast intended for that purpose ; some of whom they also knew to be averse to their Designs . But the Servant who had the management of the business having out of carelesness fill'd the Pope and his Son a Cup out of the Poisoned Flasks , the Father died immediately , the Son narrowly escaping by the help of some Sudorificks . And not being able so to influence the next Election , as to get one chosen fit for his purpose , the whole design of Caesar Borgia came to nothing . Tho after the death of Pius III. who Sate but a few Weeks in the Papal Chair , Julius III. a most mortal Enemy of Borgia was chosen in his stead , who having taken into his Possession all what he had got before , banish'd him out of the Country . Neither did this Pope rest satisfied , till he had recovered all what formerly belonged to the Church , ( except Ferrara which was not reunited with the Papal Chair , till about the latter end of the last Age , when the Legitimate Race of the Dukes of Esté was extinct . This Pope also prevented the French from becoming Masters of Italy .

§ . Luther gives a great blow to the Grandeur of the Pope . 25. But when the Ecclesiastical Monarchy seem'd to be come to the very Pinacle of its Grandeur , when all the Western parts were either in Communion with , or in Obedience to the Church of Rome , except some few Remnants of the Waldenses in France , and of the Hussites in Bohemia , and when just the differences arisen betwixt Pope Julius II. and Lewis XII . which easily might have occasioned another Schism , were after the death of the first happily Composed by Leo X. and all the complaints against the Ambition of the Court of Rome were almost extinguished , there was such a Revolt made from the Chair of Rome , first raised upon a very indifferent occasion , that a great part of Europe withdrew itself from the Obedience of the Pope , who was thereby put in danger of losing all . We will in this , as we have done in all other matters , only relate how far human Counsels and helps were concerned therein . For the hidden Counsels and Works of God Almighty , ought in our judgment rather to be received with admiration and a submission , than to be dived into with presumption . And what Tacitus says , in a certain place , may conveniently be applyed here : Abdi●'s numinis sensus exquirere illicitum , anceps , nec ideo assequare , i. e. To search into the hidden designs of God is unlawful , uncertain , nor are they to be penetrated by us .

Pope Leo of the House of de Medicis was an affable , The Vertues and Faults of Leo. and magnificent Man , very liberal towards all honest and learned Men , who might have made a very good Pope , if he had but had an indifferent knowledge of Religion , and an inclination to Piety , whereas he was very careless of both . He having lived very splendidly , and by his Liberality and Magnificence exhausted the Apostolical Chamber , and not being acquainted with the Arts of acquiring Riches , made use of the Cardinal Laurence Puccius , who at last , when all the other Gold Mines were emptied , proposed the way of raising mony by Indulgences . These Indulgences were therefore sent abroad all over Christendom , both for the dead and the living , Eggs , Milk , and the like were allowed to be eaten on fast days . The several sums of mony thereby to be raised , were beforehand assigned to certain uses ; All what was to be Collected in Saxony and thereabout , as far as to the Sea side , having been granted to Magdalen the Pope's Sister ; She to make the best of the Pope's Grant , had committed the whole management of her share to one Arcimbold a Bishop by his Title and Coat ; but who was most experienced in all the Genoese Tricks of Merchandising . He again employed such as did proffer the most , and had no other prospect than the getting of mony . It had been formerly a Custom in Saxony that the Hermits of the Order of S. Austin used to proclaim the Indulgences . But Arcimbold's Commissioners , did not think fit to trust them at this time , as knowing them to be expert in that Trade , and fearing that they might not deal fairly with them , or at least that they might not bring in more mony than used to be gathered at other times . They chose therefore the Dominicans to Preach up the Indulgences , which the Austin Friers took very ill , as being thereby defrauded of their Authority , Right and Profit . The Dominicans in the mean while , to show themselves well qualified for this new Employment , did magnifie their Ware to that extravagant degree , that their Auditors were extremely scandalized at it ; especially since the Commissioners lived in continual debaucheries , and spent with great infamy , what the poor Country Fellows spared out of their Bellies , to redeem their sins . This obliged Luther , Luther opposes Indulgences . a Frier of the Hermits Order of S. Austin , to oppose these impudent Merchants of Indulgences ; and having duely weighed the matter with himself , he in the year 1517. did affix 95. Theses concerning this Point at Wittenbergh , and John Tezel , a Dominican Frier , published some other Theses in opposition to those , at Franckfort . Thus the Dispute having been set on foot , each of them began to enlarge himself upon the abovementioned Theses . But Luther having upon his side both Reason and Scripture , his Adversary had nothing to alledge for himself , but the Authority of the Pope and the Church . Wherefore Luther was obliged to make an enquiry , Afterwards the Popes Power . upon what Foundation the Authority of the Pope was built , and in what condition the Church was at that time ; which led him by degrees unto the discovery of the Errors and Abuses , which were crept into the Church , and to an invective against the Impostures , and scandalous lives of the Monks and Priests , and that it was a duty incumbent upon the Magistrates to abolish these Abuses . And to this purpose , as also to oblige the Magistrates to uphold his Doctrine , he spoke very magnificently concerning the Nature and Grandeur of the Civil Power , which the Priests hitherto had represented as despicable . By which means he at first got a great Party , and his Doctrine was spread abroad every where .

§ . The Circumstances of these times . 26. But that we may the better understand the Reason , why a Poor Frier was able to give such a blow to the Chair of Rome , we must , next to the Supreme Direction of God Almighty , consider the circumstances of these times , and what disposition there was at that juncture of time in the minds of the People in General . First then , Luther's Propositions concerning the Indulgences were very good and reasonable , and a great many Divines , which afterwards opposed his Doctrine , were at first of his side , as were also some Cardinals , and George Duke of Saxony himself . His Adversaries were so perverse , that every body lamented their folly and perverseness . Neither was it at first in the least suspected , that things would go so far as they did . Luther himself had at first not the least thoughts of falling off from the Pope . The Emperor Maximilian had no aversion to the Doctrine of Luther , and it is credibly related , that , when he first heard of him , he did say ; that this Frier ought to be kept safe , since good use might be made of him . Some Monks only , and these Commissioners , who were likely to be the losers by it , did make such a clamour , and raised such tumults by blowing up the Coals , that this small Spark broke out into a great Flame . Whole Christendom was also in a miserable condition , it being quite overwhelmed with Ceremonies ; the perverse Monks , did what they pleased , and had entangled tender Consciences in their Snares . All Divinity was turned into Sophistry New Doctrines and Propositions were broached , without any regard , how they ought to be proved and maintained . And the whole Clergy of all degrees had rendred their Lives and Conversations odious and despised to the World . The late Popes Alexander VI. and Julius II. had been infamous for their Pride , Treachery , turbulent Spirit , and other such like Vices , as were very ill becoming Ecclesiastical persons . Such Bishops as were fit for something had quite entangled themselves in worldly business ; a great many of them led a most scandalous Life , and were more expert in Hunting , than skilled in the Bible . The Priests and Monks were over Head and Ears in Ignorance , and scandalized the Common People by their Debaucheries , and their Avarice was grown unsupportable to every body .

Besides all this , The Ignorance of Luther's Adversaries . those who first pretended to oppose Luther , were a sort of simple , miserable , and some of them debauched wretches ; these , when they saw Luther maintain his Arguments in a manner which was not common at that time , were soon confounded and put to a nonplus , not knowing where to begin or to end . 'T is true , in former Ages also the Clergy had not been free from Vices , but the Ignorance of those barbarous times had served them for a Cloak . But after Europe began to be restored to its flourishing condition , and all sorts of Learning began to dispel the former darkness , it was then that these abominable Spots became more conspicuous to the Eyes of the World . As the ignorant Priests and Monks , who could not bear the glance of this bright shining Light , were stark mad at those who had restored Learning to Europe , and did them all the mischief they could , and when they found themselves worsted by them , used to make a Point of Religion of their different Disputes , and to accuse those of Heresie that were more Learned than themselves : so these used to expose their folly , and as much as in them lay to discover their Ignorance to the World . 'T was upon this account , the impudent Monks pick'd a quarrel with John Reuchlin , whom they fain would have made a Heretick ; from whence that learned Gentleman Vlrick van Hutten ( if I remember right ) took an opportunity to expose them most miserably in Epistolis obscurorum virorum . Whilst the War betwixt the Lovers and the Persecutors of Learning was carried on with great heat on both sides , Luther's Doctrine appeared in the World . And because the Monks made it their business to bring the most learned Men into the same Quarrel which they had against Luther , in hopes to strike them both down at one blow , this proved the occasion that most of the learned Men in Germany did actually side with Luther . Erasmus favoured Luther .

It is also undeniable that Erasmus of Rotterdam had a considerable share in the Reformation , for he had before already discovered , and reprehended a great many Abuses and Errors , he had rejected the School Divinity , and recommended the reading of the Bible and Fathers : he had ridiculed the Barbarity and Ignorance , which was upheld by the Monks , and approved at first Luther's Cause , tho he always excepted against his violent and biting way of writing . His silence alone proved very mischievous to Luther's Adversaries . For Erasmus being then esteemed the most learned Divine of his Age , every body took his silence for a kind of an approbation of Luther's Cause . And when he afterwards published his Treatise de libero Arbitrio , it made no great impression upon the minds of the People , since it sufficiently appeared , that it was rather writ to please others , than of his own inclination . Besides that this was not the main Point in dispute , and Luther did refute sufficiently his Propositions .

The Princes and Estates of Germany also having been sufficiently convinced , The Princes of Germany dissatisfied with the Pope . that heavy Impositions had been laid upon them of late under several pretences by the Court of Rome , for no other purpose but to maintain the Grandeur of the Ecclesiasticks at Rome , were extremely dissatisfied with the Pope . The general fear which was then in Germany of an Invasion by the Turks , and the differences arisen betwixt Charles V. Francis I. and Henry VIII . did greatly promote the Reformation , since there was but little time for to think much of these Disputes . Some are of Opinion , that Charles V. did connive at the spreading of the Doctrine of Luther throughout Germany , hoping by these Divisions to get an opportunity to suppress the antient Liberty of the Estates , and to make himself Sovereign over Germany . For else ( they say ) he might easily have quensh'd the Fire at first , viz. in the year 1521. when he had Luther in his power at Wormes , where he might have secured him , which would have passed well enough for a State Trick . But it is not so evident , whether , tho Luther had been murthered against the Publick Faith granted him , thereby his Doctrine would have been rooted out ; it is more probable that the Emperor , being then but young , did not at that time foresee of what Consequence this business might prove afterwards ; and that he did not think it advisable at that juncture of time to break with the Elector of Saxony , who was then in great Authority . Neither could he pretend at the same time , when he was engaged in a War against France and the Turks , to attack the Princes of Germany that were then courted by Francis , and who began to make Alliances with them . Yet it is certain that under the pretence of Religion he afterwards made War upon the Protestant Estates of Germany , and intended by their ruin to open himself the way to the Absolute Monarchy over Germany . And tho he was very succesful in the War against the League made at Smalkald , nevertheless he could not accomplish his projected design , because he stood in need of the assistance of the German Princes against France , and the Turks , and to obtain the Imperial Crown for his Son Philip. Nay Paul III. himself dreaded the growing greatness of the Emperor , to that degree that he stirr'd up the French to oppose his prevailing Power , and to prevent the entire ruine of the Protestants , allowed them to make use of the Alliance with the Turks against the Emperor , who he feared intended a thorough Reformation of the Court of Rome .

And besides all this the ill Conduct of the Pope did great mischief to the Roman Catholick Party . The ill Conduct of Leo and Cardinal Cajetan . For it was a grand mistake in Leo X. that he with so much violence declared himself for these Merchants of Indulgences , and by his Bull of the 9. of November in the year 1518. decided the Points in Controversie betwixt them , whereby he cut of all hopes and means for an Accommodation . It would questionless have been better for him to have stood Neuter , and to have imposed silence upon both Parties , and in the mean while to have found out an expedient to appease Luther . And Cardinal Cajetan did in the year 1519. act a very imprudent Part at Augsburgh , when he dealt so very rudely with Luther , and refused to accept of his Proposal , viz. that he would be silent , provided his Adversaries would do the same . For by this refusal made to so resolute a Man , whom he would have obliged to make a Recantation , he forced him to do his utmost , and to fall directly upon the Pope himself . It would have been no difficult matter to have granted him , that some corrupted Manners were crept into the Church , to keep him from meddling with the Reformation of the Doctrines . But on the contrary , the Pope making continual instances at the Elector of Saxony's Court , to have Luther delivered up to him , Luther was thereby obliged , to show the unreasonableness of the Pope , and to demonstrate that his own Doctrine was built upon a very solid and good Foundation . And the Pope rendred his Cause very suspicious , that he , when Luther appeal'd to a Council , did by making a great many evasions protract to call one : From hence it was evident that he did not trust much to the goodness of his Cause , if it were to be debated before impartial Judges . It was also an unlucky hit for the Pope , when he fell out with Henry VIII . who to spite the Pope , did open the Door for the Protestant Religion to be settled in England . Likewise did those of the House of Navarre propagate and protect the Protestant Religion in France , out of a hatred , as some say , against the Pope , who had shown the way to Ferdinand the Catholick into that Kingdom . Besides this there were abundance of good Men of the Roman Catholick Religion , who were glad to see that Luther did wash the scabby Heads of the Monks with so strong a Lye , as he did . So that every thing seemed to concur to promote the Decree of God Almighty .

§ . Why the Doctrine of Luther was not spread farther . 27. But , why the Doctrine of Luther was not spread farther , and the Ecclesiastical Monarchy was not quite overturned , several Reasons may be alledged . First it is to be considered , that , in those States , where Luther's Doctrine was received , the Supreme Direction in Ecclesiastical Affairs became necessarily to be devolved on the Civil Magistrates . For if any one of these States would have pretended to this Direction over the others of the same Communion , these , who would have thought themselves no less capable , would never have acknowledged the same . Which did not a little weaken their Union and Strength , and was the main occasion , that they could not act so unanimously and vigorously against the Pope , as he against them . It is also to be considered , that this Reformation was not undertaken after mature deliberation , and as it were on purpose to form or set up a new State ; but this great Revolution happened upon a sudden and unexpectedly , so that the whole Work was carried on as occasion offer'd and by degrees . And tho Luther was the first , that gave the Alarm , yet the rest did not think themselves obliged to follow precisely his Opinion , but were also ambitious of having contributed something towards the Reformation . This occasioned Disputes among themselves , Divisions among the Protestants . and because no body had an Authority among them , to decide these Controversies , each Party persisted obstinately in their Opinion ; from whence arose such a Schism , that they became neglectful of the Common Enemy , and fell upon one another . This furnished the Popish Party with a very probable Argument , who cry'd out aloud the Hereticks were faln into Confusion among themselves , as not knowing what to believe ; and since they had left the Church of Rome , they were brought into an endless Labyrinth . There were also a great many of the Protestants , who under pretext of the Gospel did lead an impious and scandalous life , The Licenciousness of some Protestants . as if by the Liberty of the Gospel they had obtained a License to abandon themselves to all sorts of Vices . This gave also occasion to the Papists to defame the Doctrine of Luther ; especially since he had with great severity reproved the licenciousness of the Clergy , and had been generally applauded for it . It also proved very mischievous to Luther's Doctrine , that immediately after whole swarms of Fanaticks , Anabaptists and the like appear'd in the World , and that the Boors in Germany run as it were mad , and made a most dangerous Insurrection . When some Princes took this Point into Consideration , the Doctrine of Luther began to become suspicious to them , as if thereby the licenciousness of the Common People was Taught and Authorised ; which they looking upon as a greater Evil , than what oppression they were likely to suffer from the Clergy , did with all their Power oppose the Doctrine of Luther .

There are some who will have it , The University of Paris . that the University of Paris also had a share in this . For Luther having persuaded himself , that this University was dissatisfied at Leo X. because he had abolished the Pragmatick Sanction , concerning the Elections of Bishops ; and that therefore the Members thereof would be glad of an opportunity to revenge themselves , he submitted his Disputation with Eckius to their Judgment ; but these gave their Judgment against him , and that in very hard words . The Kings of Spain also did afterwards consider that it was for their purpose to take upon them the protection of the Roman Chair ; wherefore they opposed the Protestant Doctrine with all their might , and so powerfully assisted the League in France , that Henry IV. if he would maintain his Crown , was obliged to leave the Protestant Religion .

Some also have observed ; Zwinglius and Calvin . that when Zwinglius , and afterwards Calvin , began all upon a sudden to introduce too great a Reformation , not only as to the inferiour but also the Essential parts of the Church , and thereby fell from one extreme to another : this proved a main obstacle to the increase of the Protestant Religion . For Luther had hitherto made very little alteration in outward Matters . He had left in the Churches the Ornaments , Clocks , Organs , Candles , and such like , he had retained the greatest part of the Mass , but had added some Prayers in the Native Tongue so that he was looked upon by most as a Reformer of the Abuses only . But when it seem'd that this Revolution was likely to become Universal , Zwinglius appear'd in Switzerland , as did Calvin afterwards in France ; these , instead of following the footsteps of Luther , began to Preach against the Presence of the Body of Christ in the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper , abolish'd all sorts of Ceremonies and Ornaments , destroyed all Reliques , broke the Altars and Images , abolish'd all order of the Hierarchy , and despoiled Religion of all such things as did most affect the Eyes and exteriour Senses of the People . This caused an aversion and animosity in the Common People against them , and increased its Zeal for that Religion , which it had received from its Ancestors . The Riches of the Church did partly promote Luther's Doctrine , a great many having thereby taken an opportunity to possess themselves of of these ample Revenues ; nevertheless the same kept a great many Prelates under the obedience of the Roman Chair , who , if they had not been afraid of losing their Rich Benefices , would not have been so backward to side with Luther's Party . This was manifestly to be seen in France , where both the Prelates and Common People had made no great account of the Popes Authority before the Reformation , but when they saw that those of the Reformed Religion were for breaking into their Quarters , they agreed better afterwards with the Court of Rome , and the Commonalty was very Zealous against the Reformed Religion .

§ . The Popish Sovereignty recovered . 28. But besides this the Pope , as soon as his adherents had recovered themselves from their first consternation , and his Enemies were faln out among themselves , has since settled his Affairs in such a manner , that the Protestants in all likelyhood will not only not be able to hurt him for the future , but he also by degrees gets ground of them . For those things wherewith Luther did upbraid them , and did the most mischief to them , they have either quite abolish'd , or at least they are transacted in a more decent manner ; Si non castè , tamen cautè : They have also made use of the same Weapons , wherewith Luther did attack them . For the Popes now a days do not insult with so much haughtiness over Princes , but treat them with more Civility and Lenity . It is true , in the last Age Paul IV. behaved himself very impudently towards Spain , and in our Age Paul V. did the same with Venice . But by the mediation of wiser Heads , these Differences were Composed , before they could draw after them any further ill Consequences ; and the Popes ever since have been sufficiently convinced , that these hot-headed proceedings are in no ways suitable to their present condition . For Paul V. did quickly give fair words , when the French Ambassadour made him believe , that the Venetians had sent for some Ministers from Geneva , to be instructed in the Principles of the Reformed Religion . Neither have of late years sate such Debauchees in the Papal Chair as Alexander VI. or such Martial Popes as Julius II. was , but of late they have endeavoured to carry on their Intreagues under hand , whilst they in outward appearance pretend to be the Promoters and Mediatours of Peace . That most scandalous Trade of Indulgences , and that gross sort of Simony they have set aside , whilst they make it their business to cajole the People out of their mony , in a more handsome manner .

The Bishops are now of another Stamp , The Bishops , Priests , and Monks , more Regular and Learn'd than heretofore . and carry it on with much more gravity than before the times of Luther , nay , there are now among the Prelats eccellent and well qualified Men. The Ordinary Priests and Monks also have been much Reformed in their Manners , and been obliged to lay aside their former brutish Ignorance . Luther And his adherents did at first gain mightily upon the People by their most excellent and learned Sermons , and by their Books which they publish'd thereby to excite the People to Piety , Prayers , godly Meditations and Exercises . Both which the Papists have imitated since , for among them now adays are to be found most excellent Preachers , and very good Prayer-Books ; so that the Protestant Clergy has now not much to object against them , as to their ability or outward behaviour . They have also got a very good insight into all the Controverted Points , and have a dosen or more Distinctions at hand against any Objection . For example : whereas nothing seems more ridiculous , than that the Pope should grant his Indulgences for twenty or thirty thousands years to come , they know how to give this a fine colour by these Distinctions of Intensive and Extensive , Potentialiter and Actualiter , which relish strangely with young Students , and the ignorant suppose them to be terms full of Mysteries . And because the Ignorance of the Clergy , and the hatred conceived against Learning and learned Men , had proved very prejudicial to the Popish Monarchy , the Popish Clergy , and especially the Jesuits , have since altered their Course , and having taken upon them the Education of Youth , have pretended to the Monopoly of Learning among the Roman Catholicks ; so that since that time Learning has not only not been prejudicial but very profitable to them .

Lastly , How they make Converts . they now adays do not make use of Fire and Sword to propagate the Roman Catholick Religion , but the chief Men among the Protestants are inticed to come over to their Party with fair Words , great Promises , and actual Recompenses . If any one who is well qualified will go over to their Party he may be sure to make his Fortune , since the Wealth of their Church furnishes them with sufficient Means to maintain such a Person , tho his Merits were not extraordinary . Whereas on the contrary , if any one goes over from them to the Protestants Religion , and either has not wherewithal to live , or else is endowed with extraordinary qualifications , he must expect nothing but want . The House of Austria most Zealous for Popery . Last of all , those of the House of Austria have greatly promoted the Popish Interest , when they drove the Protestants out of the Hereditary Countries in Germany , out of the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Countries belonging thereunto , and lately have done the same to the Protestants in Hungary , except to a very few ; or else have forced them to profess themselves Roman Catholicks .

§ . The Temporal State of the Pope . 29. From what has been said it may easily be understood , in what manner this Ecclesiastical Sovereignty has extended her Power over the Western parts of Christendom . But throughly to understand the whole Structure , and Composure of this Engine , and by what means it is sustained , it will not be improper to consider the Pope in two different ways ; first as a Prince in Italy , and secondly as the spiritual Monarch over the Western Church . As to the first it is to be observed , that the Pope may be reckoned a Potent Prince in Italy , but is in no ways to be Compared with the other Princes in Europe . His Dominions . The Countries under his Jurisdiction are the City of Rome , with her Territories situated on both sides of the River Tyber ; the Dukedom of Benevento in the Kingdom of Naples , the Dukedoms of Spoleto , Vrbino and Ferrara , the Marquisate of Ancona , several places in Tuscany , Romaniola or Flaminia , where are situated Bologna and Ravenna . In France the Country of Avignon belongs to him . Parma is a Fief of the Church , which Paul III. granted to his Son Lewis Farnese . But since that time a Constitution has been made , that it shall not be in the power of any Pope to Alienate any Fief , or to grant any of the Countries belonging to the Church in Fief to any person whatsoever , to prevent the ruin of the Ecclesiastick State , and , that , in case the Revenues from abroad should fail , the Pope nevertheless might not want means to maintain himself and his Court. The Kingdom of Naples is also a Fief of the Church , in acknowledgment of which the King of Spain every year presents the Pope with a white Horse , and some thousands of Ducats . What other Pretensions the Court of Rome makes are out of date . For the rest , these Countries are indifferently Populous and Fertile , having several Cities of Note , out of which the Pope receives a Revenue of two Millions per annum . And the Popes Ministers take effectual care , that their Subjects may not be overgrown in riches .

Perhaps there might be a considerable number of good Soldiers maintained out of the Ecclesiastick Estate , His Forces . but his Military strength is scarce worth taking notice of , since he makes use of quite other means to preserve his State than other Princes do . He maintains about twenty Gallies , which have their Station at Civita Vecchia . The chief State maxim of the Pope , as a Temporal Prince is , that Peace may be preserved in Italy , and that Italy may remain in the same State , as it is now , and especially , that there may not be introduced any other Sovereign Power , which might prove so formidable as to domineer over the rest . He must take great care that the Turks may not get footing in Italy , and in case of an Invasion from the Turks , not only Italy would be obliged to join against them , but also whole Christendom must be called in to help to chase out these Barbarians , since no Christian Prince would be contented that this delicious Country should fall into their hands .

The Pope has nothing to fear more from the German Empire , How he stands with relation to Germany , Spain and France . as long as it remains upon the same Foundation . But if it should fall under the Government of an Absolute Monarch , it is likely he might attempt to renew the Antient Pretensions . Spain and France are the two Kingdoms , which are most formidable to the Pope . Against them the Pope makes use of this Maxim , that he either sets them together by the Ears , or at least keeps up the Ballance betwixt them , that one may not become quite Master of the other . I am apt to believe that the Pope would be glad with all his heart , that the Spaniards were driven out of Italy , especially out of the Kingdom of Naples . But it is scarce to be supposed , that he should be able to do it by his own strength , and to make use of the French in this case , would be to fall out of the Frying-Pan into the Fire . Therefore all what the Pope can do , is , to take care , that Spain may not encroach upon others in Italy ; and there is no question but if the Spaniards should attempt any such thing , France and all the other Italian States would be ready to oppose their design . Neither can it be pleasing to the Pope , if the King of France should get so much footing in Italy , as to be able to sway Matters there according to his pleasure , which the Pope ought to prevent with all his might . The Pope need not fear much from the other States of Italy . For tho' some of them are under hand his Enemies , and dread his Spiritual Power , some of them also have been chastised by the Court of Rome , nevertheless , they must at least in outward appearance pay to the Pope a due Veneration , neither dare they as much as devise to make any Conquests upon the Pope . Notwithstanding this , they would not look with a good Eye upon the Pope , if he should pretend to make any Conquests upon his Neighbours and enlarge his Dominions ; this refined Nation being extreamly jealous , and desirous to keep up the ballance betwixt the States of Italy .

§ 30. Particular Constitution of the Popish Monarchy as Spiritual . But if we consider the Pope , secondly , as the Spiritual Monarch of Christendom and the Vicar of Jesus Christ upon Earth , we meet in this Spiritual State with such surprising and subtile pieces , that it must be confessed , that since the beginning of the World , there has not been set up a more artificial Fabrick than the Popish Monarchy . It has required the more sagacity to erect and sustain this Structure , the more the ends of this Sovereignty are quite different from the ends of all other States in the World , and the more feeble the Title appears upon which it is founded . For it is the main end of other Commonwealths , to live in Security and Peace ; for the maintaining of which , the Subjects contribute a share out of their Goods and Possessions ; nay , venture their lives that they may sufficiently provide against the attempts of malicious People , and live in security and without danger from their Enemies . And besides this , it is the Duty of every Subject to take care that he may be able to maintain himself out of his own Revenues , or by his Labour and Industry . But the Popish Monarch's chief design is , that the Popes and the Clergy may live in Plenty and Splendour in this World , all which is to be maintained at the Cost and Charge of other People , who must be perswaded to part with their Money by several shining Arguments and artificial Persuasions . And whereas other States are fain to maintain their Forces and Garrisons with great Expences , the Pope on the contrary entertains his Militia without any Charge , but rather with Profit to himself . And whereas it is also a State Maxim among the wiser Princes , not to extend their Conquests too far , the Pope has no occasion to imitate them in this point , since it is neither dangerous nor troublesome to him , tho' he extends his Jurisdiction over the East and West Indies . The Rights of Sovereignty are founded upon evident and undeniable Principles and divine Institution , since without it , it is impossible that mankind should live honestly , securely , commodiously and decently . But to find out the same necessity and foundation of the Pope's Sovereign Authority , and to demonstrate that as the Peace and Welfare of Mankind , cannot subsist without a supreme Civil Power ; so the Christian World cannot be without a supreme Ecclesiastical Power , is in my mind impossible to be done . He that is unwilling to believe this , let him find out a demonstrative proof and he will be the miracle of the World . But if the Pope's Champions pretend to a positive Command from God Almighty , they are obliged to prove by clear and evident proofs , and that in all its clauses and determinations out of the Holy Scripture ; that our Saviour when he sent his Disciples all over the World to preach the Christian Faith , did give them full Power , not only to propagate the Christian Doctrine among all Nations , and not to be dependent on any humane Power in their Office , so as thereby to be hindered from preaching or forced to add or retrench any thing from their Doctrine ( which Power is unquestionable : ) But also that they had a Power granted them , to put into the Ministry of the Gospel , and that without the Consent of the Magistrates ( tho' the same professed the true Christian Religion ) as many and whom they pleased ; that they also might grant to these again full Power to increase their Order to such a number as they should think fit themselves , without having any regard to the Civil Power or Magistrates , whose Right and Title is thereby empaired . And because they cannot live upon the Air , they must also have a Power granted them to seek out all ways and means not only for their subsistance , but also for carrying on their pride and extravagancies . They must also have a prerogative granted them of being exempted from the Civil Jurisdiction both in their persons and such possessions as they have acquired to themselves , tho' the same appertain to the Revenues of the Commonwealth , are situated in the Territories , and enjoy the protection of the Sovereign , who is to have no power to lay Taxes upon them , to prescribe them limits or imploy them to any other uses . They must also prove that the supreme Direction over this Order as well concerning their Office as their Possessions does belong to one of the same Order on whom the rest depend as their Sovereign , and that the Civil Magistrates cannot pretend to any superiour Jurisdiction over them , tho' the Ecclesiastical Order either by its number or misbehaviour should prove pernicious to the State , and tho' the State could not be maintained without the Revenues of the Ecclesiasticks , which must not be imployed for the benefit of the publick without the Consent of him who has the supreme Direction over this Order . Besides this , they are obliged also to prove some other Hypotheses of theirs , which are Matter of Fact . As for example , that our Saviour Christ did grant the Spiritual Sovereignty over the Church to St. Peter only , without allowing the least share to the rest of the Apostles . That he did grant this Prerogative , not only to St. Peter for his own person , but also that the same should be a perpetual Inheritance to such as should succeed him in that place where he resided as Bishop . Besides this , they must prove that St. Peter was actually Bishop of Rome , that he exercised the same Power there , and granted the said Prerogative to no other place where he used to preach besides Rome . And because these Points are so very hard to be proved , the Popish Doctors are obliged to be very cautious in proposing these Questions distinctly to the World , but rather treat of the same confusedly and superficialy . It is rather their business to fill the Peoples Heads with far-fetch'd Arguments which do not so nearly touch the point , viz. concerning the great Promises , that the Gates of Hell shall not prevail against the Church , concerning the great Authority and Prosperity of the Church , her Antiquity , the Succession of the Popes , the Holy Fathers and Councils , the Authority of so many Ages and Nations , Miracles and such like stuff , fit for a Declamation . They also make use of another expedient , viz. that if any one dares to contradict these things , he is immediately without hearing his reasons , branded with the Name of a Heretick , and esteemed as one that being a novice and ignorant in his Trade , ought not to be so bold as to contradict his Master , but deserves to be burnt .

§ 31. Why the Popish Sovereignty was to be exercised in the Form of a Monarchy . It is easily to be imagined , that this spiritual Sovereignty was of necessity to be established in the form of a Monarchy , since it was in no ways suitable to a Democratical or Aristocratical Government , not only by reason of several inconveniencies which would have attended it , but more especially , because that so many different Heads as sway a Democratical and Aristocratical Government , would even by the most severe Laws never have been kept in such a Union , but that by raising of Factions and Dissensions they would have easily overturned a Work which was built upon so slight a Foundation . But among the several sorts of Monarchical Governments , they have chosen such a one as that by all the Art of Men , there could not have been invented one more suitable to their purpose ; it being most certain that all the speculative Inventions of the most refined Politicians , are not in the least to be compared to what may be met wital in this Popish Monarchy . 'T is true , some Princes have gained to themselves and their Government a great Authority , by pretending to be the Off-spring of the Gods , and that they had laid the Foundation of their Government by the express Command of the Gods and by their peculiar Approbation ; wherefore they used to be after their death placed in the number of the Gods , and were adored as such . But the Pope has gone farther , and perswaded the People that he is the Lieutenant of Jesus Christ , who has all Power in Heaven and Earth , and his Vicar in the World , and that in a more exalted Sense than it is spoken of the Magistrates , that they are Ministers of God's Justice upon Earth . For he pretends that he has the Power of dispensing the Merits of Jesus Christ , and that such as refuse to acknowledge this Prerogative , are not capable of obtaining Salvation . And since there is nothing more powerful in this World to induce People to a profound Veneration than the Divine Majesty , and no motive more strong to enforce from them an obedience and an entire submission to all sorts of hardship than the fear of God's wrath and eternal damnation ; it is evident that if this Point is once gained and the People thoroughly perswaded , there needs no further proof of the rest of their Articles of Faith , than that 〈◊〉〈◊〉〈◊〉〈◊〉〈◊〉 , the Pope has determined it so .

Besides this , Way it must be an elective Monarchy . most Nations having esteemed an hereditary Government the most convenient and least dangerous , have introduced that form into their States ; but this form of Government could not suite with the intention of this Spiritual Monarchy . For in these States where the Crown is hereditary , it must of necessity sometimes happen , that the same is devolved to Princes who are Minors ; and it would be an odd sight , that a Child that rides the Hobby-horse , should be taken for the Vicar of Christ , and that the Protectour of Christendom shoul want a Tutor . Neither is it to be supposed that young Princes could behave themselves so gravely and wisely , as seems to be requisite for a Person of his station ; neither can it as much as be hoped , that a whole succession of Princes should be inclinable to such a Function . In a word , an hereditary succession would have made it the same with a temporal State , which could never have been maintained long upon so awkward and slight a Foundation . For the great Ministers themselves would have been for putting by the Pope , that they might succeed in his stead ; whereas these seeing they cannot possess themselves of the Papacy by open force are now very obedient , in hopes that either they themselves or at least their Friends may one time or another attain to this Dignity by Election . Besides this , it might easily have happened , that in case the Royal Family should have been extinguished , such Dissensions might have arisen concerning the Succession , that the whole Frame of the State would thereby have been disjointed .

It was also thought convenient this spiritual Sovereign should be obliged never to marry , Why the Pope was to live in a State of Celibacy . which seemed most suitable to the gravity of this Court , since a great train of Ladies living in great splendour and plenty would have made such a figure , as must needs appear but little suitable to excite others to a Holy Life and Devotion . Wherefore it was the main design , by a fained hypocrisy to impose a belief upon the People , as if the Court of Rome was so wholly taken up with spiritual Affairs , that there was no room left for worldly Pleasures . It was also reasonably supposed , that a Prince who had Wife and Children might sometimes be led away to take more to heart the private Interest of his Family than the publick Good of the State , since there can scarce be any thing more prevailing upon a Man , than the consideration of the welfare , and preservation of Wife and Children . And what Alexander VI. and Paul III. did with their Bastards , have been convincing Instances of this position to the Court of Rome . It is possible that they also rook this into consideration , that if a Temporal foreign Prince should obtain this Dignity , he would entail it upon his House , which inconveniencies are now avoided by the Obligation which is laid upon the Pope never to marry .

The Conclave is also a most admirable Invention to bridle the immoderate Ambition , The Conclave . and prevent those Schisms , which used formerly miserably to afflict the See and weaken the Authority of the Popes ; besides that , thereby a long Vacancy of the Chair is prevented , and by means of this Election , it is much easier to pick out one that is fitly qualified to represent the great and artificial Hypocrite , and afterwards to make the People believe , that are ignorant of the Intrigues of the Conclave , that it was by the particular providence of God Almighty , that such a Person was chosen as was the most worthy to be God's Vicar upon Earth . Thus much at least may be obtained by an Election , that such a Person is chosen as is well versed in the Arts of Policy and their ambitious Designs , and whose Age being above the folly and extravagancies of young Men , may by his years and long experience appear more venerable in his Function . What Qualifications are necessary for one that is to be chosen Pope . It is also a very wise Ordinance concerning the Election of a Pope , that he is to have two third parts of the Votes in the Conclave , which seems to have been introduced , that the new Pope might not be displeasing to a great number of Cardinals . Now a days it is a general maxim in the choice of a Pope , to elect an Italian , which is not only done because they rather will bestow this Dignity and Advantage upon a Native of Italy than upon a Foreigner , but also because the security and preservation of the Papal Chair depends in a great measure on the ballance which is to be kept betwixt France and Spain , which is not to be expected from a French of Spanish Pope , who would quickly turn the Scale , and by granting too great Prerogatives to his Country-men , endeavour to exclude others from the Papal Chair . They also choose commonly a Pope who is pretty well in years , but very seldom a young one , that also others may be in hopes of attaining the same Dignity , and that a young Pope during a long Regency may not undertake to alter their Customs and Maxims , or to make his Family so Rich and Potent and set up so many Creatures of his own , as thereby to entail the Papal Chair upon his House . Besides that , in this station where the Pope need not to go into the Field , there is more occasion for a grave antient Man than a vigorous young Person . It is also another Maxim among them , to take care that he may not be too near a Kin to the deceased Pope , that the vacant Church-Benefices may not fall into the Hands of one Family , and the new Pope may be the sooner prevailed upon to amend the Faults of his Predecessor . Lastly , They are commonly for choosing such a one as is neither too much addicted to the Spanish nor the French Interest , yet that he be not hated by either of these two parties . Wherefore it is a Custom among them , that both these Crowns give in a List of such Cardinals as they would have excluded from being elected Pope . Notwithstanding all this it often so happens , that one is chosen Pope of whom no body thought before , when the Cardinals are tired out by so many Intrigues , and are glad to get out of the Conclave . It is also often observed , that a Pope proves quite another Man after he is come to sit in the Chair than he was before , when yet a Cardinal . The Pope at his entring upon the Government , is not tied to any certain Rules or Capitulations , since it would seem very unbecoming to controul by humane Laws and Contracts the Power of him who is pretended to be endowed with the Holy Ghost .

But the College of the Cardinals is as it were the standing Council of the Ecclesiastical State , College of the Cardinals . in like manner as the Chapters of the Cathedrals are to the Bishops in Germany . With those the Pope advises concerning Matters of the greatest moment ; nevertheless it often happens that the Popes and their Nephews make but little account of their Advice , but act as they please . The chief Prerogative of the Cardinals consists chiefly in that they have the Power of choosing a Pope , and that out of their own Body , they being supposed to be the next to him , and best acquainted with the Affairs of the Court of Rome , which is one necessary qualification of a Pope . Their ordinary number is Threescore and Ten , which is seldom complete . They now a-days are treated by the Title of your Eminency , according to a Decree of Pope Vrban VIII . whereas they were formerly called Most Illustrious ( Illustrissimi ) which Title was grown very common in Italy . And because the Cardinals had got a new Title , the Princes of Italy pretended also to be treated by the Title of your Highness ( Altazza ) whereas formerly they were very well satisfied with the Title of your Excellency ( Excellenza . ) The Election of the Cardinals depends absolutely on the Pope's pleasure , who nevertheless , constantly takes notice of such as are recommended to that Dignity by France , Spain and other Princes . The Parasites of the Court of Rome , are not ashamed to maintain , that the Cardinal's Cap is equal in Dignity to a Crowned Head , and to this day they pretend to have the precedency before the Electors of the Empire .

Ever since the time of Pope Sixtus IV. The Popes enrich th●ir Kindred . viz. since the Year 1471. the Popes have made it their Business to enrich their Families out of the Church Revenues , of which there are very remarkable Instances . For it is related that Sixtus V. during his Regency of five Years , did bestow upon his Family above three Millions of Ducats ; and Gregory XV. had in two Years and three Months , got together the value of three Millions in Lands , without reckoning what he left in ready Money . It is reported of the House of the Barbarini's , that at the death of Vrban VIII . they were possessed of 227 Offices and Church-Benefices , most of them reckoned at three , five , eight and ten Thousand Seudi a piece , whereby it is said , they got together a Treasure of 30 Millions of Scudi . This has been represented as a very scandalous thing by some , but if duly considered , it is a great folly to suppose , that since the main intention of the Popish Sovereignty is to enrich the Clergy , the Popes should stifle their natural inclination toward their Kindred , and not make Hay whilst the Sun shines . This is rather to be look'd upon as a common Infirmity , that Favourites and others whilst they are Fortunate are envied by others , who are vexed because Fortune is not so favourable to them . Besides that , the Revenues of the Church are so great , that the Popes since they need not entertain any considerable Army , scarce know how to employ them better .

Since the time of Pope Vrban VIII . a Custom has been introduced , to make one of the Pope's Nephews Chief Minister of the Ecclesiastical State , whom they call Cardinal Patroon ( Cardinal Patrono . ) Among other Reasons , Cardinal Patroon . why the Pope commits the management of Affairs to one of his Nephews , this is alledged for one ; that by reason of the nearness of Blood , he ought to be preferred before others , and that by so doing , the Pope's Person is better secured against any attempts which are sooner made upon his Life than of other hereditary Princes , whose death their Successours are able to revenge . How fearful the Popes are of Poyson , may be judged from thence , that as often as the Pope receives the Sacrament , his Chaplain who is to administer the Bread and Wine , is obliged to taste of both before the the Pope . It is also pretended , that by the Ministry of the Nephews , this Advantage is obtained , that the other Ministers and Governours have not so much opportunity to enrich themselves , and to put one another out of place , which is the common Custom in Elective States . For their Nephews are few in number , and therefore sooner to be satisfied ; neither will they easily suffer that others should enrich themselves , since they are sensible that all the hatred falls upon themselves . They are also very serviceable to the Pope , in that they more freely can disclose the Interests of the several Princes to him , than other Ministers who are not so nearly allied to him , and that they are fain to be more circumspect in their management of Affairs , for fear , left they may one time or another be called to an account ; for which reason it is their Business , so to oblige one Prince or another , that they may upon all occasions be sure of his Protection . Besides , that by their Assistance , Affairs may be carried on with much more secrecy than otherwise . And if the Pope were destitute of their Counsel , he would be obliged to have recourse to the Cardinals , who most commonly are very partial , being most of them engaged to foreign Princes either by Pensions or Benefices .

§ 32. Concerning the Celibacy of the Popish Clergy . The Subjects of this Ecclesiastical Monarchy may commodiously be divided into two several sorts ; the first comprehends the whole Clergy , the second all the rest of Christendom , as far as the same professes the Roman Catholick Religion , which is commonly called the Laiety . The first may be compared to the standing Army of a Prince , who thereby manitains his Conquests ; the rest are to be deemed as Subjects that are Tributaries to the Prince , and are obliged to maintain those standing Forces at their Charge . The first have this particular Obligation upon them , that they must abstain from Marriage . This is done under pretence of a special Holiness , and that thereby they may be the more fit to perform their Duty without any hinderance ; but the true reason is , that they should not prefer the Interest and Welfare of their Wife and Children , before that of the Church , and in consideration thereof , not side with those Princes under whose Jurisdiction they live , or that they should not enrich their Children with the Revenues of the Church , but be the more ready upon all occasions to execu●e the Pope's Will , especially against such Princes , under whose Protection they live . For since Wife and Children are esteemed the dearest Pledges , not to be left to the discretion of an enraged Enemy , they could the easier despise the anger of their Princes , if they had no other Care to take but for themselves , a single Man not needing to fear a livelihood in any place whatever . And it has been the main endeavours of the Popes to exempt the Clergy by all means from the Jurisdiction of the Civil Magistrates , and to make them only dependent on himself . Besides this , the avaricious Clergy would not have made so good a Harvest if it had been taken for granted among the People , that the same was collected for their Wife and Children , whereas now it is pretended , that they receive not for themselves , but for the maintainance of the Church . But those who have been so busie to force Celibacy upon the Clergy , were forgetful in not prescribing them at the same time a Recipe against Incontinency , and which they seem to stand in great need of . How vast a number there is of this sort of People , Their Number . may be best judged out of what is related of Pope Paul IV. who used to brag , that he had 228000 Parishes , and 44000 Monasteries under his Jurisdiction , if he did not mistake in his account , especially as to the Monasteries , The Clergy may again be subdivided into two sorts , viz. those who are bare Priests and Ecclesiasticks , and those who have engaged themselves by a particular Vow , viz. the Monks and Jesuits who are to be esteemed the Pope's pretorian Bands . They receive for their pay Honours and Dignities , great Revenues , a quiet Life , without any great Labour , and live always near a good Kitchin ; but those who have addicted themselves to a more strict Order , are fed with the vain belief of Holiness , great Merits and particular Prerogatives above others .

§ 33. The Popish Doctrine suted to the S●●e . The Pope makes use of this Artifice to keep the Laiety in Obedience , that he persuades them to receive and consider his Ecclesiastical Troops , as the Chief Promoters of their Salvation , and Masters over their Consciences ; which serves like a Bridle to lead and turn them about according to the Will of the Clergy . And that every thing may be accommodated to the Interest of this Spiritual Monarchy , several Articles of the Christian Religion have been by degrees stretched or patched up with new Additions ; and any one that will duly weigh these Matters wherein they differ with their Adversaries , will soon find that in those points there is generally a mixture of Interest as to the Authority , Power and Revenues of the Clergy . Among those in the first place is to be reckoned the Doctrine concerning the Authority and Power of the Pope , whereby they pretend to set him above Councils , and make him Infallible ; which point is stretched to the utmost by the Jesuits , because , if that stands fast , all the rest is soon proved . As that of the Pop●●s Power . Wherefore , what has been taught formerly , and if I am not mistaken , is taught even to this Day , by the Doctors of the Sorbon , viz. that the Councils are equal to , or rather above the Pope , is destructive to the very fundamental Constitution of the Popish Monarchy , since this Doctrine smells strongly of a Democracy , which is directly contrary to a Monarchy . And it is not easily to be reconciled how the Pope who pretends to have such great Prerogatives above all others , should be subject to the Censure of his Cretures and Vassals . For as they will have it , whatsoever either the Holy Scripture , or the antient Fathers have attributed to the Church , ought altogether to be applied to the Pope , in like manner , as what is spoken of a whole Kingdom , is commonly to be understood of the King .

The Laiety has been debarred from reading the Holy Scripture , The prohibition of the Laietya reading the Scripturea . by which means not only the Authority of the Clergy is maintained among the People , as if the Priests were the only Men that have a privilege to approach to the Divine Oracles ; but also the Laiety is thereby prevented from finding out those points in the Scripture which are repugnant to the Interest of the Clergy : For if the People should once get a true Understanding of the Scripture , they would not be so forward to follow so blindly the Instructions of the Priests . They also by this means prevent the Laiety from diving too deeply into Divinity , which they pretend belongs only to the Clergy ; and for this reason it is that they attribute the Power of explaining the Scripture to the Pope only , that nothing may be brought to light , which may in any ways be prejudicial to the spiritual Monarchy . For the same reason the Pope pretends to have the sole Authority of deciding all Controversies whatsoever .

It is also given out among the People , Traditions . that the Holy Scripture is imperfect , which must be explained by antient Traditions ; whereby they gain this point ▪ that if they invent any Doctrine for the Interest of the spiritual State , whereof there is not the least footsteps to be found in the Holy Scripture , they without any other proof , may only have recourse to the antient Traditions .

The distinction betwixt Venial and Mortal Sins , Venial and Mortal Sins . as also what is alledged de casibus reservatis , is barely invented for the benefit of the Clergy . That infinite number of Books of Confession , enough to fraight whole Fleets withal , is not published with an intention to correct Vices , but that by laying a Tax upon the same , the Clergy may the better be able to maintain their Grandeur , and satisfie their Avarice . The most comfortable Doctrine of remission of Sins , has wholly been accommodated to the Interest of the Clergy . Penance ▪ For , because it would not have turned to the profit of the Clergy , if every one who truly repented should obtain remission of his Sins , only by Faith in the Merits of Christ ; it has been the Doctrine of the Church of Rome , that it was an essential piece of penitence , and the means to obtain forgiveness of Sins , if a most exact and precise account of every individual Sin committed was given to the Priest . By which means , they not only keep the People under their Devotion , and make such impressions upon them as are fitting for their purpose ; but they also come thereby to the knowledge of all Secrets , Counsels , Designs and Inclinations of the People , which they make good use of for their benefit ; notwithstanding , that they are under an obligation not to reveal any thing that is told them by way of Confession ; for , else it would be impossible for them to persuade the People to act against the natural Inclination of all Mankind . The Priest has also a Power to command works of satisfaction to be done , whereby he commonly has his good share . For tho' certain Prayers , Pilgrimages , Fasts , Flagellations and the like , are often imposed upon them for Penances , yet they also very often condemn some , and especially the richer sort in a good sum of Money , to be given instead of a Penance to a certain Monastery , Church or the Poor , among whom are the Mendicant-Fryars . These honest Fellows call themselves minimos fratrum , according to the 25. Chap. of St. Matthew , that they may have a fair shining pretence to fill their Purses . For by this Interpretation , the Christains have got this benefit , that they are obliged to feed and maintain 100000 lazy , idle Fellows . Besides this , the first sort of Penance may be redeemed with Money , if you think it too hard to be performed . And who that is wealthy , would not be civil and liberal towards his Father-Confessour , to oblige him to a mitigation of the Penance or because he has already shewed himself favourable before ?

Why good Works have been made meritorious and the means of obtaining Salvation from God Almighty , Merit of good Works . is easily to be guessed . For when they were to give a definition of good Works , they were sure to put in the first place , that the Pople ought to be liberal towards the Clergy , Churches and Monasteries , and to perform every thing which is commanded them by the Pope and his adherents , tho' never so full of Superstition and Hypocrisy . Neither must this be forgot , that they also have taught , that the Monks are not only able to perform good Works sufficient for themselves , but that also they have an overplus of Merits which they can fell to the Laiety . And out of this overplus , they have laid up an inexhaustible store very profitable to the Clergy , which costs them nothing , which does not grow musty nor ever decays , and which cannot be returned upon their hands , when the Buyer finds out the Cheat.

Their Religious Exercises are so full of Ceremonies , Ceremonies , so many superfluous Feasts and Processions are instituted so many Chapels are Altars erected only to employ so great a number of Clergymen , who else would appear like so many idle Fellows , whereas now it turns all to their profit ; which is also the reason why they have encreased the number of Sacraments of seven , since they know that none of them can be administred , but the Priest gets by it . The Mass without Communicants has been introduced and proclaimed a Sacrifice both for the dead and the living , that they might have an opportunity to put both the dead and the living under Contribution . For no body undertakes any thing of moment , but he has a Mass sung first , for the good success of the thing in hand . No body of wealth dyes , but he orders a good store of Masses to be sung for his Soul , all which brings grist to the Priest's Mill.

On the other hand , Half Communion . after it once was become an abuse , that the Laiety did receive the Sacrament without partaking of the Cup , it was made into a Law . And tho' the contrary was very evident both by the Institution of Christ , and the practice of the Church for a great many Centuries , yet did they persist with great obstinacy , because it should not seem that the Clergy had committed an Errour ; and also that they might have a Prerogative before the Laiety in this Sacrament . And to ridicule the more impudently both God and Men , they give to the Laiety a Chalice which is not consecrated , which in very despicable Terms they call the rinsing Chalices , as People when they have eaten any uncleanly thing , use to rinse their Mouths .

Marriage also was to be made a Sacrament , Marriage made a Sacrament . tho' nothing is more absurd , that the Clergy might have an opportunity to draw all matrimonial Causes under their Jurisdiction , which are often very profitable , very various and of the greatest Consequence , since the welfare , inheritance and succession of most People , nay , even of whole Kingdoms depend thereon . This obliged Mary Queen of England to endeavour the re-establishment of Popery in that Kingdom ; for without the Pope's Authority , she must have passed for a Bastard . And Philip III. King of Spain was among other reasons obliged to the Pope , because he had given Dispensation to his Father to marry his own Sister's Daughter , of whom Philip was born , which Marriage would not easily have been approved by other Christians . There were also so many prohibited degrees introduced on purpose that the Clergy might have frequent opportunities to give Dispensations , whereby they know how to feather their Nest . Extreme Unction . By the Extreme Ointment the Priest takes an occasion to exhort the dying people to leave Legacies for pious uses , which they commonly know how to apply to the advantage of their own Order . Purgatory . Purgatory was invented for no other purpose , but that the dying Man , who at that time is not so greedy of worldly Goods , which he is to leave to others , might be liberal towards the Clergymen , in hopes , by their intercession and a good number of Masses to get the sooner out of this hot place . The Veneration paid to the Reliques , Reliques ▪ Prayers to Saints . has also been very beneficial to the Clergy ; these are employed , besides other uses , to reward people of Quality , that have done great services to the Pope , with a piece of an old Bone in lieu of a better present . The Adoration of the Saints serves for a pretext to build the more Churches , institute more Feasts and employ and feed a greater number of Priests . The power , which the Pope has assumed of Canonization , gives him a considerable authority among the People , as if it were his prerogative to bestow Dignities and Offices upon whom he thinks fit , even in Heaven , and that God Almighty cannot but accept of such Referendaries , as the Pope is pleased to represent to him . By this means he makes himself Master of the Inclinations of the People though living in far distant places , unto whom he proposes this as a Recompense of their Credulity and Ambition , if they stick at nothing to promote his Interest . And ever since this Superstition has taken root in Christendom , those who have been Canonized have for the most part been Clergymen , who either by a new invented Hypocrisie , or outward appearance of Holiness had made themselves famous in the World . Or if by chance one Layman or another has attained to this Dignity , either he himself , or at least those that interceeded for him , have been fain to deserve very well of the Papal Chair . Not to mention here , in what manner they by fictitious Miracles , several sorts of Images , Apparitions , Exorcisms , Indulgences , Jubilees , prohibition of divers sorts of Victuals , and such like tricks used to fool the People out of their mony .

§ . The Universities have promoted the Popish Sovereignty . 34. Next to what has been said , the Universities , which have partly been Instituted by the Popes Authority , partly by other States , yet so that most of them have been Confirmed by the Popes , who also have claimed the Supreme Direction over the some , have been mainly instrumental in maintaining the Popish Sovereignty . It is evident enough of what Consequence this Direction must needs be to the Pope . For , since in the Universities Men are first imbued with such Opinions , as they afterwards are to make use of during their whole Life , and instil them into others , the Universities , and Sciences there to be taught were to be sure to be accommodated to the Popes Interest . Neither were the Professours of Divinity here , who claimed the Precedency before all others , the only Creatures of the Pope , but also the Professours of the Canon Law , who were as busie as any to put his Decrees upon the World , and to maintain his Authority . For the World may thank the Canon-Law for the first Introduction of those long Law Suits , which the Clergy pretended to belong to their Jurisdiction , that by receiving of Bribes they might the sooner satisfie their Avarice . The greatest-part of the Philosophers were also the Popes Slaves , and if one or another attempted to investigate the true causes of Things , he was sure to be kept under by all the rest . The Divinity and Philosophy which was professed in these Universities were not taught with an intention to make the young Students more learned and understanding , but that the ingenious by these confused and idle terms might be diverted from throughly investigating those matters which would have led them to the whole discovery of the Popish Intreagues . For their Scholastick Divinity is not employed in searching and explaining the Holy Scripture , but for the most part entangled in useless questions , invented chiefly by Peter Lombard , Thomas Aquinas , Scotus , and the other Patriarchs of Pedantry . And what they call Philosophy is nothing else but a Collection of foolish Chimer's , empty Terms , and very bad Latin , the knowledge of which is rather hurtful than profitable , if you have not been better Instructed otherwise . So that all what they pretended to , was to take care that the Sciences might not be fundamentally taught to the Students . With these Trumperies the Universities were not only over-run during the former barbarous times , but even continue to this very day ; and tho most Sciences are so much improved , the old Leaven is with great Industry preserved and propagated : on the contrary all the solid Science , especially such , as are Instrumental in discovering the Vulgar Errors of the World are suppressed . Above all the rest , the most useful of all , Doctrine of Morality is much misinterpreted and entangled in an endless Labyrinth , that the Fathers Confessours may not want means to domineer over the Laymens Consciences , and to entangle them with so many dubious and double meaning insinuations , that they are thereby rendred incapable to examin and rule their Actions , according to solid Principles , but are obliged to be guided blindfold according to the pleasure of their Fathers Confessours .

§ . Why the Jesuits have taken upon them the Education of the Youth . 35. But , because Learning had given the main blow to the Pope , at the time of Luther's Reformation , the Jesuits , who may well be called the Popes Guard du Corps , have afterwards taken upon them the management of the Youth ; for they not only teach publickly in the Universities , but they have also engrossed to themselves the Instruction of the Youth in the Schools , that they might have all the opportunity so to guide and direct them in their Studies , that they might not only not prove prejudicial , but rather advantageous to the Kingdom of Darkness . For by this way of managing the Youth they have not only acquired vast Riches and Authority to their Order , but also have been very instrumental in maintaing the Popish Monarchy , which they are bound to do by a particlar Vow above all the other Monks . They make it their business to imprint into the tender minds of the Youth a Veneration for the Pope , and so to guide their inclinations as they think it most profitable to the State of the Church . They use the young people from their infancy to persist obstinately in their conceived Opinions , and that no Reasons ought to prevail against them , whereby they render them incapable of ever attaining the knowledge of Truth . They have also an opportunity throughly to investigate and discover the Capacities and Inclinations of their Disciples , which they make good use of to their advantage , whenever these are imployed in State Affairs . But such as they find of an extraordinary Capacity or abounding in Wealth , they endeavour by all means to draw into their Order . So that the main intention of their School Discipline which is so famous throughout the World , is , to uphold the Pope's Sovereignty . They boast of extraordinary methods to teach the Latin Tongue to young people , but they take a particular care , that they do not let their Disciples grow too wise , except such as are to be received into their Order . And , because , they have by this management of the Youths brought a great many able Men over to their Order , and are besides this very gentile and civil in their Conversation ( in which point they are far above all the other Monks , who are most of them full of Incivility and Pedantry ) they have found means , under pretence of being Confessours , to creep into most Courts , and to insinuate themselves into the very Secrets of the State ; so that in a great many Courts they have the greatest sway in the Councils ; And there you may be sure they will never be forgetful of the Popes and their own Interest . Nevertheless by their insatiable Avarice , and forwardness of medling in all Affairs they have made themselves odious in some places ; And because the Jesuits have trespassed upon the Authority and advantages of the other Monks , who are of more antient Orders , these are grown jealous of them to the highest degree .

Neither ought it to be passed by in silence , Licensing of Books . that the Pope and his adherents pretend to have a right of Censuring and Licensing all Books whatsoever , whereby they may easily prevent that nothing may come to light , which might prove prejudicial to them . And in Censuring of Books they are so impudent as not only to strike out of the antient Authors , when the same are to be reprinted , at pleasure , such passages as they dislike , but also they do not stick to insert such new passages as are suitable to their intentions . If any Book is to be published in their Territories first the same is exactly revised and corrected . And if it should happen by chance , that something should be overseen in the first Edition which does not suit with their Interest , it is marked in an Index made for that purpose , that it may be omitted in the next Edition . But the Books of their Adversaries are prohibited , nay the reading of them is not allowed , but to some particular persons , and that not without special leave , and these are such as they know to be thorough-paced and intirely devoted to their Interest . By so doing they may lay to their Adversaries charge what they please , since their Subjects never get sight of the others Refutation . It has been a general observation , that since the scandalous life of the Monks had not only been very prejudicial to the Popish Monarchy , but also that the Protestants had set out their Vices in their natural colours ; The Papists have bespattered the Protestant Ministers with the same Vices as they were charged withal , and have not only representedthe infirmities of some particular persons to the World , but also have laid to their charge the most heinous crimes they could invent ; and afterwards have challenged their Adversaries to prove the contrary ; which Calumnies have such influence , at least upon the simple and common sort of People , that it gives them a great aversion to the Protestants . They also do not want impudence to set out at a high rate their Miracles , Martyrdoms and other great Feats , which generally are transacted in far distant Countries ; by which means they gain a great Credit at least by the inconsiderate multitude . Among others Edwin Sandys an English Knight has discovered abundance of these tricks in his Treatise concerning the State of Religion .

§ 36. Excommunication and Inquisition . The Pope also makes use of more violent means to maintain his Authority ; In former Ages his Excommunication was a most terrible thing ; when whole Countries were forbidden the exercise of Religious Worship ; by which means the Popes have often obliged Emperours and Kings to come and creep to the Cross . But now adays this Weapon is not frightful to any body except to some petty States in Italy . Nevertheless in Spain and Italy they have set up a certain Court , which is called the Office of the Holy Inquisition , where Information is taken and all such proceeded against as have in any ways tendred themselves suspected of Heresie : And it is counted the worst sort of Heresie , if any one attempts any thing against the Popish Law and Doctrine , or against the Pope's Authority . This serves for a Bridle to curb the People withal , and to the Inhabitants of those Countries is as terrible as the Plague , since matters are transacted with so much severity in this Court , that scarce any body , that falls under the Inquisition , escapes their hands without considerable loss .

§ 37. Some Reasons why the People remain in the Communion of the Church of Rome . Though the Supreme Direction and Administration of the Romish Religion , together with their other rules , which serve to uphold it , and have been alledged by us here , are a sufficient awe upon the People ; And besides this , the Popish Clergy know how to manage their Affairs with that dexterity as to give some satisfaction to every one ; so that I am apt to believe , that a great many , who live under the Popish subjection , are verily persuaded , to believe , what the Priests tell them , to be real , since they want means and opportunity of being better instructed ; Nevertheless it is very probable that a great many of the more learned and wises sort are sufficiently convinced , in what manner things are carried on among them , and that therefore it is in respect of same particular considerations , that they do not free themselves from this Yoke . I am apt to believe , that most are kept back , because they do not see how to remedy this Evil ; And yet they are unwilling to ruin their Fortunes by going over to the Protestant side , where they are not likely to meet with so plentiful a share . These Temptations are not easily to be resisted , wherefore they think it sufficient for the obtaining of Salvation if they believe in Jesus Christ and trust upon his Merits , but for the rest think it of no great consequence if in some matters , which are the inventions of Priests , they by conforming themselves play the Hypocrite , and believe as much concerning them as is suitable with their Opinions . They suppose it to be of no great consequence , that perhaps the Female Sex and the vulgar sort of People that are always fond of extravagancies , do believe these things in good earnest . There are also , questionless , not a few , who not having sufficient Capacity to distinguish betwixt such Points in Religion , as are commanded by God , and betwixt such as are invented by the Clergy for private Ends , and perhaps coming afterwards to the knowledge of some of these deceits , they take all the rest for fabulous Inventions , only covering their Atheistical Principles with an outward decent behaviour to save themselves the trouble of being questioned and disturbed . Every Man of Sense may without difficulty imagine how easily a sensible Italian or Spaniard , that never has read the Bible or any other Protestant Book may fall into this Errour , if he once has had an opportunity to take notice of the Intrigues of the Clergy ; tho' it is certain , that since the Reformation of Luther , the Church of Rome has changed her Habit , and her Garment appears far more decent than before . But besides this , there are a great many Persons of Quality as well as of a meaner Condition , who make their advantage of the Romish Religion , where they have an opportunity to provide for their Friends , by putting them either into some Order or other of Knighthood , or into that of Monks , or other Ecclesiasticks , by which means a great many Families are eased of a great Charge , and sometimes are raised by it . At least the superstitious Parents are well satisfied when they see their Children are become such Saints : And those that cannot make their Fortunes otherwise , run into a Monastery , where they are sure to be provided for . All these conveniences would be taken away if the Popish Monarchy should fall , and the Church Revenues were applyed to the use of the State . The Popish Doctrine also has got so firm footing in those Countries where it now rides triumphant , that if any of their Princes should endeavour to root it out , he would find it a very difficult Task , since the Priests would be for raising Heaven and Earth against him , and not stick to find out another James Clement or Ravilliac for their purpose . Besides this , most of those Princes are tied by a Political Interest to the Church of Rome , and by introducing a Reformation cannot propose any advantage to themselves , but rather cannot but fear very dangerous Divisions and Innovations .

§ 38. What States are tied by a particular Interest to the Church of Rome . Italy by its particular Interest is obliged to support the Popish Monarchy , it being much to the advantage of this Country , that the Pope resides among them , especially since now a-days no other but Italians do attain to this Dignity ; Italy . so that there is scarce a great Family in Italy , but some of their Friends have some dependence on the Roman Chair . Poland . Because the Bishops and Prebendaries in Poland are always chosen out of the Nobility ; the Noblemen who have the chief sway of Affairs in that Kingdom are tied to the Popish Interest , and the Bishops who are there also Senators of the Kingdom , have a great influence in all the Transactions of any moment . Portugal . The Clergy is very Potent in Portugal , and in case of any Innovation , would be assisted by the Spaniards ; this was the reason why the Portugueses of late years have been fain to comply with the Pope , notwithstanding that the Pope to curry favour with Spain , did not many years ago treat them so ill in the matter of Collation of Bishopricks , which else might have served them for a fair Pretence , to withdraw themselves from the Obedience of the Roman Chair .

Some of the Estates of Germany are to this day adhering to the Popish Interest ; Germany . among the Imperial Cities that of Cullen is the Chiefest , which City is over-run with Ecclesiasticks . Besides this , there are abundance of Counts and others of the Nobility , that hitherto have not thought fit by turning Protestants , to exclude themselves from Ecclesiastical Dignities and Benefices . Among the Temporal Princes , the Elector of Bavaria has stuck close to the Romish Religion , because the House of Bavaria has always had a great Appetite to the Imperial Crown , which hope it must lay aside , if it should leave the Popish Religion . What has induced some Protestant Princes to return to the Romish Communion , is sufficiently known . Neither is it much to be admired at , that the present Bishops and Prelates stand firm to the Popish Interest in Germany , since they find it more advantageous to be great Princes than poor Preachers . Besides this , they have been deterr'd from undertaking any Reformation by the Example of two Electors of Collen , which they in the last Age did begin with a very unfortunate Success in their Dominions . After Charles V. ( being influenced by the Spanish Counsels ) did let slip the Opportunity of setling the Protestant Religion throughout the Empire ; the Emperours have ever since that time , for reasons of State , not been able to disentangle themselves from the Popish Sovereignty if they had been never so willing . For as the case now stands , the Ecclesiastical Princes of the Empire are tied to the Emperour's Interest , from whom they hope for Assistance against the Secular Princes in case of necessity . But if the Emperour should abandon the Church of Rome , the whole Clergy would be against him ; and he could not promise himself any certain Assistance from the Secular Princes , especially since some of the most ancient Houses of those Princes , that now have laid aside the hope of attaining the Imperial Crown , by reason of difference in Religion , would then pretend to have the same right to that Dignity with the House of Austria . The Pope also upon such an occasion would not cease to stir up Heaven and Earth against him , and the King of France would not let slip this Opportunity , but would with all his might endevour to obtain the Imperial Dignity , in which design he perhap● might meet with encouragement from the Clergy .

The Spaniards pretend to be the greatest zealots of the Romish Religion , Spain . because they stand in need of the Pope's Favour to assist them in the preservation of the Kingdom of Naples and the State of Milan ; and they commonly use to lay their Designs under the cover of preserving and maintaining the Roman Catholick Religion , wherein , however they have for the most part miscarried , not to mention here that the Clergy is very Potent in Spain , and that the common People thro' the false perswasions of the Priests , have got a great aversion against the Protestants .

France does outwardly shew it self not so fond of the Popish Interest , France . nor has the Gallick Church ever acknowledged the Pope's absolute Power over her . And whenever the Pope pretends to encroach upon the Liberty of the French Church , the Parliament of Paris is ready to take notice of it . The Doctors also of the Sorbon have rejected several Propositions , which were maintained by the Pope's Parasites . They also keep so watchful an Eye over the Pope's Nuncio there , that it is not easy for him to transgress his Bounds . The Nuncio's , when they go out of Rome . carry the Cross upright , but as soon as they enter the Territories of France , they let it down till such time as they have obtained leave from the King to exercise their Function , when they are fain to oblige themselves by their own Hand-writing , that they will not act otherwise in this Station , and no longer than it pleases the King . They also must make use of a French Secretary , and at their departure , leave behind them a Register concerning their Negotiation , and also are tired to several other Formalities , without which , all their Negotiations are accounted void and of no force . Formalities observed by the Nuncio's in France . From hence it is that the French say , that the Pope's Nuncio there , has his Commission both from their King and the Pope , and that it is precarious , and may be recalled by the King at pleasure . And it is to be observed that the Pope's Nuncio pu●s by his Cross in any place where the King is present , thereby it is intimated that his Commission ceases when the King is present . Nay , it is credibly related , that under the Ministry of Cardinal Richlieu it was debated in France , whether they should not constitute a Patriarch of their own in that Kingdom ▪ tho' as far as I can see , this design would not have proved so very advantageous to France . For the Clergy , must needs have become very jealous of the King's Power , for fear he might take this Opportunity to retrench their ample Revenues . And if the King of France has not laid aside his thoughts and pretences upon the Imperial Crown , he can never suppose to obtain his aim , if he should withdraw himself from the Roman Chair . For if so Potent a Prince as the King of Franc● is , should once obtain the Imperial Dignity , it is very likely he would not only revive the antient Pretensions of the Emperours upon Rome , which have for a long while been lying dormant ; but he would also under the specious pretence of protecting the Roman Chair , endeavour to recover such Possessions as had been ●equestred from the Church of Rome . On the other hand , the Pope is heartily afraid of a French Monarchy , being well convinced that it would endeavour a thorough Reformation of the Court of Rome , and that his Wings would be clipt to that degree , that in effect he would be no more than a Patriarch . Neither ought he to exspect any better treatment if the Spanish Monarchy had been brought to perfection ; as either of them must needs have been destructive to the Protestant Religion .

It may therefore be taken for granted that one of the main Pillars of the Popish Monarchy is the jealousy and ballance , The main Pillar of the Popish Monarchy . which is to be kept up betwixt these two Crowns ; and that it is the Pope's Interest , as much as in him lies , to take care that one of these Crowns do not ruin the other , and set up for an universal Monarchy . If we look into the transactions of former times , we shall find that the Popes have long since observed this Maxim . 'T is true , after the death of King Henry II. when France was extreamly weakned , the Popes were forced to be good Spanish whether they would or no , the Spaniards having then found out the way to oblige them to it by fair or foul means . They knew how to influence the Popes by their Nephews , who were for setling and enriching their Families , whilest their Kinsmen were alive . Those they brought over to their party by granting to them Pensions , Church-Benefices , large Possessions , great Offices and advantageous Marches ; who in acknowledgement of the same used often to make the Pope good Spanish , even against his inclination ; but if they resisted these temprations , they used to prosecute these Nephews with a vengeance , after the Pope's decease . And it was their constant practice in those days , to exclude such from the Papal Chair , as they thought were bent against their Interest . But as soon as France began to recover its Strength , the Popes managed themselves with more indifferency , and shewed no more favour to either side , than they thought was suiting with their present Circumstances . It is remarkable that the Jesuit Guicardus in a Sermon preached in Paris in the 1637. in the Month of July , did say , that the War which the then King of France waged against the Spaniards , was to be deemed a Holy War , carried on for the preservation of the Holy Religion . For if the King of France had not taken up Arms , the Spaniards designs were so laid , as to make the Pope an Almoner to the King of Spain .

§ 39. The Pope's In●lination towards the Protestants . But as to those who have withdrawn themselves from the Pope's Obedience , it is certain the Pope would be glad , if they could be reduced to his Obedience , provided it might be done by such means , that thereby one party were not so much strengthened as to become terrible to all Europe . For it is better to let my Enemy live , than to kill me and my Enemy at one stroke . It was for this reason , that we read that Pope Paul III. was vexed to the heart at the stupendous Success of the Emperour Charles V. against the Protestants , which made him recall his Troops that were sent to his Assistance . And if Philip II. had been successful in his expedition against England , Sixtus V. would questionless have acknowledged his Errour of assisting him in this Enterprise . So Gregory XV. during the Differences betwixt those of the Valtelins and the Grisons sided with the last , the Protestants against Spain . Neither was Vrban VIII . dissatisfied at the Success of Gustavus Adolphus against the House of Austria , especially since the latter had given much about the same time an evident instance to the World , as to the business of Mantua , that they used to give no better treatment to Roman Catholicks than Protestants . Some have remarked , that when Ferdinand II. did desire some Subsidies from the Popes , which he had promised before , the Pope sent him plenary Indulgences for him and his whole Army at the point of death , that they might be prepared to dye with the more Courage . And some Years ago , the Court of Rome was no less concerned at the then prodigious Success of France in Holland , when this State seemed to be reduced to the utmost extremity . But the chief aim of the Pope is , to reduce by all manner of Artifices the Protestants to his Obedience . To obtain this end , he sets the Protestants together by the Ears , flattereth the Protestant Princes , and takes care that many of them may marry Roman Catholick Ladies ; the younger Brothers out of the greatest Families he obliges to come over to his Party , by bestowing upon them great Dignities and Church-Benefices , all that will come over to his side are kindly received and very well used , neither do they write so much against the Protestant Divines , but rather endeavour to set up and maintain Controversies among them . By these Artifices the Popish Clergy had got very visible advantages in this Age over the Protestants , and are likely to get more every day , since they see with the greatest satisfaction that their Adversaries do weaken themselves by their intestine Quarrels and Divisions .

§ 40. From what has been said it is easily to be judged , No Peace is to be exspected betwixt the Roman Catholicks and Protestants . whether those Differences which are on foot betwixt the Roman Catholicks and the Protestants may be amicably composed , either so that both Parties should remit something of their pretensions , and agree to one and the same Confession of Faith , leaving some by-Questions to be ventilated in the Universities ; or so that both Parties may retain their Opinions , and yet , notwithstanding this Difference , might treat one another like Brethren in Christ and Members of the same Church . Now if we duly weigh the Circumstances of the matter , and the Popish Principles , such a Peace is to be esteemed absolutely impossible ; since the Difference does not only consist in the Doctrine , but both Interests are absolutely contrary to one another . For first the Pope is for having the Church-Possessions restored ; but the Protestant are resolved to keep them in their possession . The Pope pretends to be the supreme Head of Christendom , but the Protestants States will not part with their Prerogative of having their Direction circa Sacra , which they look upon as a precious Jewel belonging to their Sovereignty . And to pretend to live in Communion and Amity with the Pope , and not to acknowledge his Sovereignty in Ecclesiastical Affairs , is an absolute contradiction . In the same manner , as if I would be called a Subject in a Kingdom , and yet refuse to acknowledge the King's Authority . Besides this , the infallibility of the Pope is the Foundation Stone of the Popish Sovereignty , and if that is once removed , the whole Structure must needs fall , wherefore it is impossible for the Pope , and that for reasons of State , to abate any thing from his 〈◊〉 wherein he differs from the Protestants . For if it should ●e once granted that the Pope had hitherto maintained but one single erroneous point , his infallibility would them fall to the ground ; since , if he has erred in one point , he may be erroneous in others also . But if the Protestants should allow the Pope's infallibility , they a● the same time must deny their whole Doctrine . And it seems not probable that the Protestants can ever be brought to contradict and at once to recal their Doctrine concerning the vanity of the Popish Tenets . Nay , if it might be supposed that the Laiety should do it , what must become of the Clergy ? Where will they bestow their Wives and Children ? Wherefore , how good soever the intention may have been of those that have proposed a way of accommodation betwixt the Papists and Protestants , which is commonly called Syncretism , th●y are certainly nothing else but very simple and chime●ical Inventions , which are ridiculed by the Papists ; who in the mean while are well satisfied to see that the Protestant Divines bestow their labour in vain as to this point , since they ( the Papists ) are no loosers , but rather the gainers by it . For this Syncretism does not only raise great Animosities among the Protestants , but also does not a little weaken their Zeal against the Popish Religion : It is easy to be imagined , that some , who do not thoroughly understand the Differences , and hear the Divines talk of an accommodation betwixt both Religions , are apt to perswade themselves , that the Difference does not lie in the fundamental points ; and if in the mean while they meet with an advantageous proffer from the Roman Catholicks , are sometimes without great difficulty prevailed upon to bid farewel to the Protestant Religion . It is taken for a general Rule , that a Fortress and a Maiden-head are in great danger , when once they begin to parly .

§ 41. But if the Question were put , Strength of the Protestants and Papists . whether the Pope with all his adherents be strong enough to reduce the Protestants under his Obedience by force ; it is evident enough that the joint power of the Papists is much superiour to the strength of the Protestants . For Italy , all Spain and Portugal , the greatest part of France and Poland , adhere to the Pope , as also the weakest part of the Swiss Can●ons . In Germany those hereditary Countries which belong to the House of Austria , the Kingdom of Bohemia , and the greatest part of Hungary , all the Bishops and Prelates , the House of Bavaria , the Dukes of Neuburgh , and Marquisses of Baden , besides some other Princes of less note ; some Coun●s , Lords and others of the Nobility and some Imperial Cities , besides others of the Roman Catholick Communion that live under the Jurisdiction of the Protestant States ; all which according to my computation make up two thirds of Germany . There are also a great many Papists in Holland , neither is England quite free of them . But of the Protestant side are England , Sweden , Denmark , Holland , most of the Secular Electors and Princes , and the Imperial Cities in Germany . The Hugonots in France are without strength , and the Protestants in Poland being dispersed throughout the Kingdom are not to be feared . Curland and the Cities of Prussia may rest satisfied , if they are able to maintain the free exercise of their Religion ; neither is Transylvania powerful enough to give any considerable Assistance to the Protestant Party . The Papists also have this Advantage above the Protestants , that they all acknowledge the Pope for the supreme Head of their Church , and at least to outward appearance , are unanimous in their Faith ; whereas on the contrary , the Protestants are not joined under one visible spiritual Head , but are miserably divided among themselves . Divisions of the Protestants . For not to mention here those Sects of lesser note , viz. the Arminians , Socinians , Anabaptists and such like , their main Bod is divided into two Parties , of very near equal Strength , viz. into the Lutherans and those of the Reformed Religion , a great many of which are so exasperated against one another , that they could not be more against the Papists themselves .

Neither are the Protestants united under one Church-Government or Liturgy , Other Inconveniencies . but each of these States regulate the same according as they think sit . Neither can it be denied , but that the Roman Catholick Clergy in general is more zealous and industrious in propagating their Religion than the Protestants ; a great many of these making no other use the Church-Benefices , than to maintain themselves out of them , just as if it were a meer Trade ; and the propagating of the Christian Faith , is the least of their Care , or at least only their by-work . Whereas the Monks and Jesuits gain great applause by their Missions in the East and West-Indies ; and tho perhaps they brag more than is true of their great Success there , yet is this Institution in the main very praise-worthy . Besides this , there is such an implacable jealousy betwixt some of the Protestant States , that it is not probable that they will be one and all against the Papists : not to mention others here , such a jealousy is betwixt Sweden and Denmark . as likewise betwixt England and Holland . Tho' on the other hand , there is as great a jealousy betwixt France and Spain , which will always be an obstacle to any union betwixt these two Crowns against the Protestants . So that notwithstanding the unequality betwixt the Papists and Protestants , these need not fear the Pope's Power .

Nevertheless , there is a great difference to be made as to those Protestants , The Hugono●s of France that live in a Protestant State , independent on any other , and those who live under the jurisdiction of a Roman Catholick Prince , the latter of which are not so very well assured of the free enjoyment of their Religion . For the Hugonoes in France have no other Security but the King 's bare Word , and the Edict of Nantes , which would stand them but in little stead , if the King of France should be overcome with a Zeal like to that of the Spaniards , or the House of Austria . Yet does it not seem probable to me , that the King of France should easily pretend to force them to another Religion , as long as they are quiet ; since he ought to consider what great Services the Hugonots have done to Henry IV. without whose Assistance he would in all likelihood not have been able to obtain the Crown . to Protestants of Poland . It is not easily to be supposed , that the Poles should raise a persecution against the Protestants in Curland and Prussia , especially as long as the City of Dantzick maintains her Liberty .

The Protestants in Germany are so considerable , Of Germany . that they may be esteemed equal in strength to a Kingdom . But their being divided under several Heads , and that of a different Interest , much abates their strength . And the Emperours within the space of a hundred Years , have twice reduced them to that extremity , that both their Religion and Liberty ( which are so link'd together , that one cannot be lost without the other ) seemed to be near gone , if France and Sweden had not prevented it . 'T is true , there has of late Years a new Maxim been set up , viz that the Protestants of Germany are now in a capacity to maintain themselves without the assistance of the two above-mentioned Crowns , and that the Elector of Brandenburgh is the most fitly qualified to be their Head , and to have the Direction among them : And as it is the Interest of the House of Austria to uphold them in this belief , so Brandenburgh and Luneburgh make use of this supposition to cover their designs of getting into their possession those Provinces , that were given to Sweden as a recompence for having been so instrumental in preserving the Religion and Liberty of the Protestants of Germany . But suppose they should compass their Design , it is most certain that those two Houses by the addition of those Countries , would be much less formidable to the Emperour , than they were at that time when they were upheld by Sweden . And it is a great mistake if they perswade themselves that what assistance they may exspect from Denmark and Holland , can countervail what they had from France and Sweden . If the Emperour should obtain his Ends and drive those two Nations out of Germany , and restore the Spanish Interest , and then tire out the Estates by sending great Armies against them , it would be a question who would be able to oblige the Emperour in such a case to disband his victorious Forces ? Or whether the Emperours might not under some pretence or another keep his Army on foot , and oblige the States to provide for them in their Territories ? Whether Brandenburgh and Lunenbuhgh would be able alone to oppose the Emperour's design ? But if the Protestant Estates should find themselves not strong enough to resist his Power , it would be the Question whether these Crowns would be immediately ready at their demands , or whether the circumstances of their Affairs would be such , as to be able to undertake such a task ? Or whether at the time of imminent danger such a one as Gustaous Adolfus , would be sent down from Heaven , who could act with the same Fortune and Success . For he that believes , that the Religion is sufficiently secured by Seals and Deeds , or that the Emperours have laid aside all thoughts of making themselves Sovereigns of Germany , if an occasion should present it self , especially since Religion , and the recovery of the Church possessions furnishes them with so specious a pretence , must needs have lost the memory of all past transactions . But the last Peace made at Nimmeguen has sufficiently convinced the World , that these designs could not be put in execution . Those Protestant States therefore that are Independent on other Princes need not fear the power of the Roman Catholicks . For , as two States that are of the same Religion , nevertheless differ in State Interests , and are jealous of one another , which is plainly to be seen betwixt France and Spain , and betwixt England and Holland ; so , though States are of a different Religion , it is not from hence to be concluded , that if a Potent Prince of the Roman Catholick Persuasion should attempt to ruin a Protestant State , the other Roman Catholick States would not prevent it , if it was for their Interest to see that Protestant State preserved .

The best way then to preserve the Protestant Religion is , The best way to preserve the Reformed Religion . that each of these States take effectual care , how the same may be well preserved in their several States . And this may be done without any crafty inventions , as the Roman Catholicks are obliged to make use of , but only by plain and simple means . One of the main Points is , that both the Churches and Schools may be provided with persons fitly qualified for that purpose ; That the Clergy by their wholesome Doctrine and a good Life , may shew the way to the rest . That the people in general , but more especially such as in all likelyhood one time or another may have a great sway in the State , be well instructed in the true and Fundamental Principles of the Protestant Religion , that thereby they may be proof against the Temptations of the Court of Rome , especially when they are to Travel in Popish Countries . That the Clergy may be so qualified as to be able to oppose the devises and designs of their E●●●ies , who every day busie themselves in finding out new Projects against them .

Some are of Opinion , that the Protestant Party would be mightily strengthned , if the two Chief Factions among the Protestants , Whether the Lutherans and those of the Reformed Religion are likely to agree . that besides the difference in their Doctrine , are also of a different Interest , which seems to flo●● from their various Opinions , could be reconciled to one another ; and they believe this not impracticable , if the old hatred , animosities , pride , and selfconceited Opinions could be laid aside . But if we duly take into consideration the general inclinations of mankind , this seems to be a hard supposition . For those who peruse the Writings of both Parties without partiality cannot but admire , how their Authors are often obliged to rack themselves , that they may maintain their Opinions whether they be consonant to the Scriptures or not : As likewise how they bring to light again the old Arguments , which have been refuced a thousand times before . Neither will this do the business , if one Opinion should be supposed as good as the other ; since such an indifferency would be a shrewd sign , that the whole must needs be very indifferent to us . Neither can we without danger declare some Points , in which we differ , problematical , since I do not see how we can pretend to have a power to declare a certain Article either necessary or Fundamental , or problematical . Some therefore have thought upon this expedient , to make a tryal , whether out of the Articles , wherein both Parties agree could be Composed a perfect Systeme of Divinity , which might be linked together like one Chain , according to Art . If this could be effected , though some different Opinions remained , as long as this Chain was kept entire , we might be assured that we did not differ in the Fundamental Points necessary to the obtaining of Salvation ; and what remained undecided would not be of such Consequence as to hinder us from being united into one Body or Church . But before a true Judgment can be given of this Proposition , it would be requisite that such a Systeme composed according to Art , were proposed to the World . For my part I know no better advice , than to leave it to the direction of God Almighty , who perhaps one time or another will put us in the way of finding out a good Expedient . For untimely remedies may prove the occasion of new Divisions . In the mean while it behoves both Parties notwithstanding these differences to be mindful of their joint Interest against their Common Enemy , since they may verily believe that the Pope has no more kindness for the Lutherans , than for those of the Reformed Religion .

But as for the other Sects of less note , Socinians and Anabaptists . viz. The Socinians , Anabaptists , and such like , it is evident that their Principles cannot possibly be reconciled with our Religion ; For those who adhere to the first , do not consider the Christain Doctrine otherwise than a Moral Philosophy , and the latter scarce know what to believe themselves . Besides this , the Anabaptists have hatched out I know not what rules of Policy , which , if not suppressed in time , must prove destructive to the State . But whether the Socinians also have any such projects in their Heads , I am not able to determine , since hitherto they have not been powerful enough to raise any disturbances in the State .

CHAP. XIII . Of the Kingdom of Sweden .

§ 1. THE Swedish Historians have out of their ancient Monuments shown the World , Sweden the most antient Kingdom in Europe . that the Kingdom of Sweden is the most antient Kingdom in Europe , and that this Country , was , after the Deluge , sooner stored with Inhabitants than the other parts of Europe . Nevertheless it is very uncertain who were the first Inhabitants , and at what time they first settled there , as likewise whether they were immediately governed by Kings , or whether the Fathers of Families , had the chief sway among them , till the Regal was grafted on the Paternal Power . The names and deeds of their Kings , and the time of their Reigns are also not easie to be determined , for the List which has been published of these Kings , is not so Authentick , but that it may be called in question ; And , as to the transactions of those times , they are most of them taken out of antient Songs and Fabulous Legends , and some of them out of the allegorical Traditions of their antient Poets or Scalders , which have perhaps been wrongly interpreted by some Authors . And Johannes Messenius in his Scandinavia Illustrata , does not stick to say , that the old Swedish Historiographer Johannes Magnus did strive to outdo in his bragging History , the Danish Historian Sanno Grammaticus . First Founders of the Gothick Nation . Johannes Magnus Makes Magog , the Son of Japhet Grandson of Noah , the first Founder of the Schytick and Gothick Nations , and says that from his two Sons Sweno , and Gether and Geg , the Swedish and Gothish Nations had their names . He relates , that after this Family was extinguished , Sweden was during the space of four hundred years under the Government of certain Judges , and that about eight hundred years after the Deluge , both the Kingdoms of the Swedes and Gothes were united under Bericus , who in person planted a Colony of the Gothes beyond the Seas , after having Conquered the Vlmirugii , who then inhabited Prussia , from whence he extended his Conquests over the Vandals . A considerable time after , these Nations did settle themselves not far from the Mouth of the River Danube near the Black Sea , from whence having under taken several Expeditions both into Asia and Europe , at last in the third and fourth Centuries after the Birth of Christ , did enter the Roman Provinces on this side of the Danube , and carried their Conquering Arms into Italy and Spain , where they erected two Kingdoms . But the greatest part of this Relation is contradicted by Messenius , who also rejects the List which Johannes Maginis h●● given us , of the Kings before our Soviour's Birth , alledging that the times before Christ's Nativity , are all involved in fabulous Narrations , as to those Northern parts , and that most of these Kings lived after the Birth of our S●viour . But , since even the Chronology of the first 〈◊〉 after Christ's Nativity , and the Genealogy of those Kings it somewhat uncertain in these Contries , it will suff●ce to mention here some few of the most famous among them , till the latter times furnish us with an opportunity to relate things with more certainty .

§ 2. Sixty years before the Birth of Christ , the famous Othin or Woden , Othin or Woden . having been driven by Pomp●y out of Asia with a great number of people , first Conquered Bussas , afterwards the Saxons and Danes , and last of all Norway and Sweden , about twenty four years before Christ's Birth . Othin kept for himself Sweden only , yet so , that all the other Scandinavian Princes should own him a● their Supreme Lord , from whence came that Custom which was used for several hundred years after , viz. That at the great and general meetings of these Nations , the King of Denmark used to hold the Bridle of the King of Sweden's Horse , whilst he mounted it , and the King of Norway the Stirrup . He was succeeded by Frotho surnamed . Frotho . Jorgo , who covered the Temple at Vpsal with Gold , and surrounded its Pinacle with a golden Chain . After him were these following Kings Niord , Sigtrug , Asmund , Vffo , Hynding , Regner , Halvard , Helgo , Attilus , Hother , Roderick surnamed Singabond , Hogmor , and Hogrin , Erick , Haldan , Sivand , Erick , Haldan , Vngrin , Regnald . About the year 588. Rodolf was King of the Gothes , but being vanquished by the English , whom he left in the possession of that Kingdom , he himself fled into Italy , where he sought Sanctuary of Dicterick the King of the Gothes . In the mean while Frotho , either the Son , or else a Kinsman of Regnald , was King of Sweden , whom succeeded these following Kings Fiolmus , Swercher , Valander , Vislur , who was burnt by his own Sons . Damalder , who was Sacrificed by his own Subjects to their Idol at Vpsal . Domar , Digner , Dager , Agnius , who was hanged by his own Wife . Alrick and Erick , who flew one another in a single Combat , Ingo , Hugler , Haco , Jerundar , Hacquin surnamed Ring , under whose Reign that most memorable Battel at Brovalla was fought , Battel fought near Brovalla . betwixt the Swedes and Danes , where thirty thousand Men were killed on the Danish , and twelve thousand on the Swedish side . This King Sacrificed nine of his Sons to the Idol at Vpsal , and would have done the same with the tenth , who was the only Heir left to the Kingdom , if he had not been prevented by the Swedes . Him succeeded his Son Egillus , whom followed in the Kingdom of Sweden , Othar , Adel , Ostan , Ingvard , Amund , Sivard , Hirot or Herolt , who married his Daughter Thera to Regnerthethen King of Denmark . Ingellus . Ingellus the Son of Amund , succeeded Hirot in the Kingdom of Sweden ; who , the night after his Coronation caused seven of those petty Princes , that were Vassals of the Crown of Sweden to be burnt in their Lodgings ; and afterwards exercised the same Cruelty against five more of the same Rank . His Daughter Asa , that was married to Gudrot a Prince of Schonen , exceeded her Father in Cruelty , for having murthered her Husband and his Brother , she betrayed the Country to the Enemies ; which so exasperated Ivan , the Son of Regner , King of Denmark , that he fell with great fury upon Ingellus , who had taken his Daughter into his Protection , destroying all with Fire and Sword . Ingellus being reduced to the utmost extremity , by the advice of his Daughter burnt himself , his Daughter , and the whole Family , in his own Palace , except his Son Olaus , who sheltered himself in Wermeland . After the death of Ingellus , a certain Nobleman , of an antient Family in Sweden , whose name was Charles , assumed the Royal Title and Power , but Regner King of Denmark , who pretended that it belonged to his Son , did send a challenge to the said Charles , and having killed him in the Combat , transferred the Kingdom of Sweden to his Son Bero or Biorn , who was Hirots Daughters Son .

§ 3. Bero. Under the Reign of this Bero or Biorn , Ansgarius , a Monk of Corvey , A. C. 829. and afterwards Bishop of Bremen , was sent into Sweden , The Christian Doctrine first taught in Sweden . by the Emperour Lewis the Pious , to Preach the Gospel in that Kingdom . But the King refusing to hearken to his Doctrine , was by the Swedes banished the Kingdom , together with his Father Regner . Amund . His Successor Amund did also Rule but a very few years , and having raised a most horrible Persecution against the Christians , was also banished the Kingdom . The Swedes being quite tired out with Amund's tyrannical Government , Olaus . did call in Olaus , out of Wermeland to be their King , who to establish himself in the Throne , married the Daughter of Regner to his Son Ingo , and thereby obtained the quiet possession of the two Kingdoms of the Swedes and Gothes . A. C. 853. Not many years after Ansgarius rerurned into Sweden , and Converted Olaus , ( who then resided at Birca a most populous City ) to the Christian Faith . Olaus then marched with a Potent Army into Denmark , and having committed the Administration of that Kingdom to his Son Ennigruus , returned into Sweden ; where he was by his Heathen Subjects Sacrificed to their Idol at Vpsal . His Son Ingo , Ingo . the better to Establish himself in the Throne , married the King of Denmark's Daughter , A. C. 890. and afterwards was killed in the War against the Russians . Him Succeeded his Son Erick surnamed Weatherhat , Erick . famous for his skill in Witchcraft , who was succeeded by his Son Erick surnamed Seghersell , Erick Seghersell . who Conquered Finland , Curland , Livonia , and Ehestland From Denmark he retook Halland and Schonen , and at last drove the Danish King Swen out of Denmark , who could not recover his Kingdom till after his death . Stenchill the Mild. His Son Stenchill , surnamed the Mild , was Baptized at Sigtuna ( a great City at that time ) and having destroyed the Idol at Vpsal , and forbid his Subjects upon pain of death to Sacrifice to the Idols , the Pagans were so enraged thereat , that they slew and burnt him near Vpsal , and with him the two Christian Priests that were sent to him by the Bishop of Hamburgh . Olaus . His Brother Olaus nevertheless obtained from King Etheldred of England several Christain Priests , who not only preached the Gospel in Sweden , but also the King , and a great number of People were Baptized by one of these called Sigfried in a Fountain called Husbye , which is called St. Sigfrieds Kalla Wel to this day . This Olaus was surnamed Skotkonung , because upon the persuasion of the English Priests he granted to the Pope a yearly Tax against the Saracens , which was called Romskot . This Olaus took from Oluf Tryggeso the Kingdom of Norway , which he however recovered afterwards . This Olaus Skotkonung was also the first who made a perfect union betwixt the two Kingdoms of the Swedes and Gothes , The Swedes and Gothes united in one Kingdom . who had hitherto been often at great enmity with one another .

To Olaus succeeded his Son Amund , under whose Reign the Christian Religion increased very succesfully in Sweden ; Amund . after whom Reigned his Brother Amund , surnamed Slemme , Amund Slemme . a Man very negligent both in maintaining Religion and Justice . He was slain with the greatest part of his Army by Cnut King of Denmark , near a Bridge called Strangepelle . After his death the Gothes and Swedes disagreed about the Election of a new King , Haquin the Red. the first choosing Haquin surnamed the Red. the latter Stenchill the younger . At last it was agreed betwixt them , that Haquin being pretty well in years should remain King during his life , and should be succeeded by Stenchill . After the death of Haquin , who Reigned thirteen years , Stenchill . Stenchill the younger , Olaus Skotkonung's Sisters Son , began his Reign , who vanquished the Danes in three great Battels . Him succeeded Ingo surnamed the Pious . Ingo the Pious . This King utterly destroyed the Idol at Vpsal , which so enraged his Pagan Subjects , that they Banished him the Kingdom , and afterwards murthered him in Schonen , he was buried in a Convent called Wa●hei●● in West-Gothland . After him reigned with great applause his Brother Halstan , Halstan . whom succeeded his Son Philip A. C. Ingo , Philip's Son , and his Queen Ragoild , 1086. were also very famous for their Piety and other Vertues : Philip. Ingo . she was after her death honoured as a Saint , A. C. and her Tomb frequently visited at Talge . 1138. This King left no Sons , but two Daughters , Christina and Margret , the first was married to St. Erick , the second to Magntis King of Norway . He was poisoned by the East Gothes , who were grown weary of the Swedish Government . Under the Reign of these five last Kings there were golden times in Sweden , the Christian Faith was then Established and the Subjects lived in Peace and Plenty .

§ 4. After the death of Inge , the East Gothes , without the consent of the other Provinces , made one Ragwald Knaphofde , Ragwold Knaphofde . a Man of great bodily Strength , but of no great Wisdom , their King , who was slain by the West Gothes . In his stead the East Gothes chose Swercher II. Swercher II. a very good King , who nevertheless was murthered by one of his Servants . After the death of Swercher , the East Gothes chose his Son Charles for their King , but the Sw●des at their General Assembly at Vpsal Elected Erick the Son Josward , Erick the Holy . he having married Christina the Daughter of Ingo surnamed the Pious . But both the Swedes and Gothes considering afterwards , how necessary it was to keep up the Union betwixt these two Kingdoms , made an agreement that Erick should remain King over both Kingdoms , but that Charles should succeed him , and that afterwards their Heirs should Rule the Kingdom in the same manner in their several turns . This Erick having reduced the Finns to their former Obedience , obliged them to receive the Christian Doctrine . A. C. He also ordered the antient Constitutions of the Kingdom to be Collected into one Book , 1154. which was called after his name St. Erick's Law . He was slain in the Meadows near Vpsal by Magnus the King of Denmark's Son , who having first defeated his Army , was proclaimed King . 1160. But the Swedes and Gothes under the Conduct of Charles the Son of Swercher , fell again with such fury upon the Danes , that they kill'd all the Danes with their King and his Son upon the spot , and out of the spoil built a Church near Vpsal which they called Denmark , Charles the Son of Swercher . Charles therefore , the Son of Swercher became King of Denmark , who Reigned with a general applause ; 1168. till Cnut the Son of Erick returned out of Norway , Cnut Erickson . and under pretence that he had abetted his Father's death , surprised and killed him . His Lady and Children fled into Denmark , where having got some assistance they joined with the Gothes under the Conduct of Kell , the Brother of Charles , to recover the Kingdom , but their General was killed upon the spot , and their Forces dispersed by Cnus Erickson . After which he Reigned very peaceably for the space of twenty three years . After the death of Cnut , Swercher III. Swercher the Son of Charles was made King of Swedeland , but had for his Rival Erick , the Son of the last deceased King . At last the difference was thus Composed , that Swercher should remain King during his life , but should be succeeded by Erick . But Swercher , who notwithstanding this agreement was for settling the Crown upon his Family , did barbarously murther all the Sons of Cnut , except Erick , 1207. who escaped into Norway ; from whence he returned with some Forces , and being assisted by the Swedes vanquished Swercher , who fled into West Gothland . Having obtained Succours of sixteen thousand Men , from Weldemar , the King of Denmark , he attempted to recover his Kingdom , but was miserably beaten by Erick's Army , he himself narrowly escaping into Denmark ; 1208. from whence he not long after again fell into West Gothland , 1210. but was again defeated and slain in the Battel , Erick Cnutson . Leaving Erick Cnutson in the quiet possession of the Throne , who renewed the former agreement made betwixt those two Families , and Constituted John the Son of Swercher his Successour in the Kingdom . He married Ricnet the Sister of Waldemar King of Denmark , 1219. and dyed in Wisingsoe . Him succeeded according to agreement , John the Son of Swercher , who Reigned but three years and dyed also in the Isle of Wisingsoe , which was the general place of residence of the Swedish Kings in those days .

§ 5. Erick Lespe . After the death of John , Erick , the Son of the former King Erick , became King of Sweden , who being lame , and besides this lisping , was surnamed the Lisper . There was about that time a very Potent Family in Sweden called the Tolekungers , who aimed at the Crown . To bring these over to his Party the King had married three of his Sisters to three of the Chiefest among them , he himself having married Catharine the Daughter of Sweno Tolekunger . But these being grown more Potent by this Alliance ; Cnut Tolekunger rebelled against the King , and having worsted him , obliged him to fly into Denmark ; from whence he soon returned with a strong Army and vanquished Tolekunger , and having caused him and Halingar his Son to be slain , restored the Peace of the Kingdom . Under the Reign of this King it was that Gulielmus Sabinensis the Pope's Legat did first forbid the Priests in Sweden to Marry , whereas before that time it had been a common Custom among the Priests there to Marry , Celibacy of Clergy introduced in Sweden . as well as Laymen . This Erick under the Conduct of his Brother in Law Birger Yerl forced the Finnes to return to Obedience , and to receive the Christian Faith , and built several Fortresses upon their Frontiers . 1250. He dyed without Issue in Wisingsoe . Whilst Birger Yerl was absent in Finland , Waldemar . the States made Waldemar the eldest Son of Birger Yerl their King , as being the deceased King's Sisters Son : 1251. Who being Crowned in the year next following , the Administration of the Kingdom was committed during his minority to his Father Birger , who augmented the antient Law Book , and deserved so well of the Publick , that upon the request of the Estates he was created a Duke , whereas before he had been only an Earl , or as it is in their antient Language Yerl . He met with great opposition from the Tolekungers , who had not quite laid aside their pretensions to the Crown , so that their jealousie at last broke out into open War . But the Duke , under pretence of making an agreement with them , after having granted them a safe Conduct persuaded them to give him a meeting , where having made them all Prisoners caused them to be Executed , except Charles Tolekunger who fled into Prussia , and remained there all his life time . Things being thus settled , he gave to his Son , in Marriage , Sophia the Daughter of Erick King of Denmark , 1263. and laid the first foundation of the Castle and City of Stockholm ; and tho his Son was become of Age , yet did he never surrender the Government to him as long as he lived . 1266. He died after he had been Regent fifteen years , leaving four Sons , Waldemar King of Sweden , Magnus Duke of Sudermanland , Erick of Smaland , and Benedict of Finland , who afterwards raised great Disturbances : for Waldemar having , during his Pilgrimage to Rome and Jerusalem , left the Administration of the Kingdom to his Brother Magnus , at his return accused him of having aimed at the Crown . The States of Sweden held an Assembly at Strengness to compose these differences if possible ; 1275. but met with so much difficulty that it was impossible to be effected . Wherefore Magnus and Erick being retired into Denmark , soon returned from thence with a considerable Force ; and having routed the Vanguard of King Waldemar , made him their Prisoner . Whereupon Magnus called together the Estates of the Kingdom ; who being most of them of his Party , did assign the whole Kingdom to Duke Magnus , except only East and West Gothland , Smaland and Daht , which the King was to have for his share . But this Agreement lasted not long ; for the Danes , who had not received their Subsidies promised by Magnus , siding with Waldemar , the War was renewed , which was carried on with various Success ; till at last the Danes , having received satisfaction for the Money due to them , left Waldemar in the lurch , who , in the presence of the Estates , resigned the Kingdom to Magnus .

§ 6. Magnus . Waldemar having resigned the Kingdom , Magnus was crowned at Vpsal : 1279. who resumed the Title of King of the Swedes and Goths , which had not been used by his Predecessors ever since the time of Olaus Skotkanung , but is since retained by the Kings of Sweden to this day . Under this King's reign the Family of the Tolekungers began to raise new Commotions , and being assisted by some of the Nobilty , murthered Ingemar Danschkep the King's Favourite , and took Gerhard the E. of Holstein and Father-in-law to the K. Prisoner , laying also close Siege to the Castle of Joncoring ; which oblig'd the K. to appea●e them for that time by fair Promises : but not long after the E. was released , the K. accused them before the Assembly of the Nobility of High Treason , and caused them all to be executed at Stockholm , except Philip of Runby , who was fain to redeem his Life at a very dear Rate . And with this Stroke the Greatness of the Family of the Tolekungers was quite laid in the dust . Having thus settled his Affairs , he got his Lady Hederig crowned at Suderasping ; and , with the advice of the Senators , made King Waldemar a Prisoner in the Castle of Nicoping , 1288. where he died four years after . Magnus died in Wisignioc , 1290. but was buried at Stockholm in the Church of the Grey Friars , having left the Tuition of his Son Birger , who was but eleven years of age , and the Care of the Kingdom to Torckell C●utson the RixMarshal . Torckell Cnutson was Regent for the space of thirteen years , Birger II. during which time he also imprisoned King Waldemar's Son ; but after their decease he sent an Army into Car●lia , and having subdued this Nation , and induced them to receive the Christian Faith , he built on their Frontiers the Fortress of Wibourg , and took from the Russians Kekhelm . 1292. King Birger being by this time come to his riper Years , married Mereta the Daughter of Erick King of Denmark ; and having sent new forces into Carelia and Ingermania , 1298. built the Fortress of Norburgh on the Frontiers of Russia , which however a few years after was retaken and demolished by the Russians . Soon after he declared his Son Magnus , who was but three years old his Successor in the Kingdom , 1303. which was confirmed by the chief Men of the Kingdom , and especially by his Brothers . But this solemn Transaction was of no long continuance , for the Brothers quickly fell into divisions among themselves , and the two younger growing mistrustful of the King , the Marshal retired first into Denmark , and from thence into Norway , to make use of that King's Intercession to recover their Inheritance , which King Birger had seised upon ; but all this proving ineffectual , they made several Inroads into West-Gothland , and killed and dispersed the Swedish Troops that were sent to oppose them . The King went at last in person with an Army , and was met by his Brothers with some Forces , which they had obtained of the King of Norway ; when by the Intercession of some Senators , the Differences betwixt the Brothers were composed , and the two younger restored to their Estates in Sweden . This Agreement cost the old Torcell his Head , 1305. who , under pretence of having upheld the Ammosities betwixt the Brothers , and some other matters laid to his charge , was beheaded at Stockhelm . But no sooner was this Wise Man dead , but the two younger Brothers began to aim again at the Crown , and having surprised the K. and Q. at their Country Seat called Hatuna forced him to resign the Kingdom , and to surrender the Crown and City of Stockholm to his Brother Erick , who made the King a Prisoner in the Castle of Nicoping ; but his Son Magnus was , during this Tumult , carried into Denmark . The King of Denmark undertook 3 several Expeditions to relieve his Brother-in-law and Sister , but to no great purpose , only that at last it was agreed , that the King , Queen and their Children should be set at liberty , and the matter decided in the Assembly of the Senate of the Kingdom . The Senate therefore having been called together at Ar●oga , it was there concluded , That in case King Birger would pardon all past Injuries , and be contented with what part of the Kingdom should be assigned to him , he should be set at liberty : which was performed accordingly , the Senate and his Brothers having again sworn fealty to him . Thus matters seemed to be composed for the present , when not long after a greater Storm broke out . 1308. Erick the King of Denmark , having made an Alliance with Haquin King of Norway , came with an Army of 60000 Men into Sweden , to assist King Birger in bringing his Brothers under his Subjection : their first Success was answerable to their great Preparations , having taken Joncoping , and forced the Duke's Forces to fly before them ; but the Danes , who began to be in want of Provision , being most of them gone home , there was a Meeting appointed betwixt the Brothers to be held at Helsinburgh , where the former Agreement made at A●bega was renewed ; by virtue of which Duke Erick , was to have West Gothland , Daht , Halland , Wermeland , and Smal●nd ; Duke Waldemar was to have for his share Vpland , Oeland and part of Finland ; the rest was to remain under the King , and the Dukes to hold their Possessions in Fief from him . Thus all Animosities seemed to be laid aside , and the three Brothers lived in great splendor , striving to out-do one another in Magnificence ; which occasioning some new Taxes , proved also the occasion of some Insurrections in the Kingdom , which were nevertheless happily appeased , and Peace restored to the whole Kingdom .

In the mean while Duke Waldemar in his journey from Calmar to Stockholm , gave a visit to the King at Nycoping , who not only treated him with extraordinary Civility , but also desired him to return and bring his Brother along with him , by which means he hoped that the very seeds of their former Animosities betwixt them might be rooted out . 1317. Waldemar , being overcome by these fair Promises , over-persuaded his Brother Erick , who was very averse to it at first , but at last consented . Being arrived in the Castle where the King was , they were kindly received and splendidly entertained at Supper ; but they had not been long in bed , and most of their Servants dispersed into several Quarters of the Town , till they were made Prisoners , beaten , abused , and half naked , loaden with Irons , thrown into a strong Tower , their Servants having been all either killed or taken Prisoners . The King marched directly for Stockholm , in hopes to surprise the City ; but the News of this barbarous act having been already carried to Stockholm , they not only repulsed him , but also pursued him to Nycoping . The King perceiving that they intended to besiege Nycoping , retired to Stockeburgh ; but before his departure , having caused the Doors of the Prison to be barricado'd up , he threw the Keys into the River , and commanded upon pain of death , not to open the Doors till his return . Soon after Nycoping was besieged , but before it could be forced both the Brothers died by Famine . King Birger having by this Treacherous fact animated the whole Kingdom against him , sought for Aid in Denmark ; and having obtained some Forces , shifted with them from place to place , till some of them were suprized at Sudercoping , and the Danish Horse having also left Nycoping , the King , destitute of all , retired with the Queen into Gethland , leaving his Son Magnus in the Castle of Stegeburgh . The Swedes having immediately after invested the Place , forced it to surrender by Famine , and sent Magnus a Prisoner to Stockholm . The Senate of the Kingdom made there Matthew 〈◊〉 Regent of Sweden , 1319. who vigorously prosecuted the Remnants of the King's Party , which obliged King Birger to seek for shelter to Christopher King of Denmark .

§ 7. Magnus Smocck . After K. Birger had left Gothland , the Estates assembled at Vpsal , chose for their King Magnus the Son of D. Erick being then but 3 years old . The Year next following Magnus the Son of K. Birger , notwithstanding that the Senate and Estates of the Kingdom had sworn Fealty to him as to their future King , was villainously sentenced to death and beheaded accordingly , and King Birger and his Queen died soon after for Grief . But the Swedes , who had conceived great hopes of their new King , found themselves extreamly deceived in their Expectation after the death of of Ketelmundson , who at first managed affairs with great Prudence . For the King being now of age married Blanch the Daughter of an Earl of Namur , and laying aside the old Counsellors made use of the Advice of his young Favourites , among whom one Benedict born in West-Gothland had the chief place . The Inhabitants of Schonen being sorely oppressed by the Holsteiners , put themselves under his protection , which was afterwards confirmed by Waldemar King of Denmark , and the Sound , by common consent , made the common Borders of these two Kingdoms on that side . After he had ruled twelve years in peace , he undertook an Expedition against the Russians , which succeeded very ill , being obliged to redeem the peace by the surrender of a part of Carelia . His Treasury having by this War been mightily exhausted , he not only imposed new and heavy Taxes upon the people , but also pawned a great many of the Crown Lands . Pope Clement VI. also had excommunicated him because he had applied the Revenues of S. Peter , given to the Roman Chair by Olaus Skotkonung , to the use of the Russian War . The People being extreamly discontented at these Proceedings , the Sena●e perswaded the King that he should cause his two Sons to be declared Kings , viz. Brick of Sweden , and Haquin of Norway , which was done accordingly . The Nobility being now headed by a new King ▪ began to withdraw from their obedience to the old King , and killed his Favourite Benedict . The King who now began to see his Errors , sought for Aid from the King of Denmark , which so exasperated the Nobility , that they obliged the young King to take up Arms against his Father , which occasioned a bloody War , till at last the Kingdom was divided betwixt them , the Father having got Vpland , Gothland , Wermeland , Dabt , North-Halland , 1357. West-Gothland and Ocland . But Sh●●●n , Bleckingen , South-Halland , East-Gothland , Smaland and Finland fell to the Son's share .

But notwithstanding this agreement , the jealousie continued betwixt the Father and Son , and not long after the Father having sent for his Son under pretence of some Business of great moment , he was there poysoned by his Mother . By his death King Magnus being put again into the possession of the whole Kingdom , studied nothing but revenge against the Nobility . The better to encompass his design , he made an under-hand Alliance with the King of Denmark unto whom he surrendred Shonen again ; who not only took possession of it , but also by connivance of King Magnus fell into Gothland and Oeland , 1361. where he killed a great many Boors , plundered the whole Country , and demolished Borgholm . The Swedes being thus put to a nonplus submit themselves to the protection of Haquin King of Denmark , who made his Father Magnus a Prisoner in the Castle of Calmar . The Senate of the Kingdom then perswaded King Haquin to marry the Daughter of Henry Earl of Holstein , which he seemingly consented to at that time . But the Bride in her Voyage into Sweden , having been driven on the Coast of Denmark , was detained by Waldemar King of Denamark , who intended to marry his Daughter to King Haquin . Albert Duke of Me●klenburgh and the Earls of Holstein did denounce War against the King of Denmark if he did not release the Bride , but King Waldemar had in the mean while so well managed the Affairs with Haquin , that he resolved to marry Margaret his Daughter . The Bride was then set at Liberty , but being arrived in Sweden was so slightly received by King Magnus , who in the mean time had obtained his Liberty , that she retired into a Nunnery ; and those Senators who urged the King to perform his Marriage Contract , were by Magnus banished the Kingdom , 1363. who soon after married his Son to Margaret , that was then but eleven years old . At this Wedding which was held at Copenhagen , Waldemar caused the Parents of Haquin to be poysoned , which worked so violently upon Blenha , that she died immediately , but King Magnus was preserved by the skill of his Physicians .

§ 8. Albert Duke of Mecklenburgh . Those Swedish Lords that were banished by King Magnus , having for some time lived in Gothland did at last agree among themselves to elect Henry Earl of Holstein , King of Sweden . But he being a Man in years , and not willing to entangle himself in those troublesome Affairs , recommended to them Albert Duke of Mecklenburgh , King Magnus's Sisters Son . The banished Lords therefore having chosen his second Son , whose name also was Albert their King , carried him into Gothland , and from thence to Stockholm , which they easily took , being assisted by a strong party within the City . Having then called together such of the Nobility as they knew to be Enemies to King Magnus , they proclaimed Albert King in the City of Stockholm . 1364. Magnus and his Son having thereupon got together considerable Forces both in Sweden and Denmark , marched against King Albert into Vpland , and were met him near by Encoping , where a bloody Battle ensued , the Victory inclined to Albert's side , King Magnus was taken Prisoner , Haquin wounded but escaped the Hands of his Enemies . During the imprisonment of King Magus , 1365. Sweden was reduced to a most miserable estate , by the Wars that were carried on betwixt King Albert and Haquin and Waldemar , the two last sending continual Supplies into Sweden to uphold their Party , and Haquin was grown so strong , that he defeated King Albert in a Battel and besieged Stockholm . At last it was agreed that King Magnus should have his Liberty , 1371. paying a Ransom of 12000 Marks of sine Silver , and resign the Crown of Sweden and Shonen to King Albert , which was performed accordingly , King Magnus retiring into Norway , where he was drowned by accident . King Haquin did not long survive his Father , and his Son Olaus dying very young , Queen Margaret after his decease was sole Queen of Norway . By the Death of this Olaus , the antient Race of the Swedish Kings was extinguished , which ever since the time of St. Erick viz. for the space of 220 Years had ruled in Sweden . 1376. Not long after , Waldemar King of Denmark died without leaving any Male Heirs behind him . In whose stead the Danes to unite Norway with Denmark , declared his Daughter Margaret their Queen . King Albert by the Death of his Enemies being now established in the Throne of Sweden began to slight the Swedish Nobility , and to employ the Germans in his Service , who grew very Rich and Potent ; and his Treasury being exhausted by the war which was carried on against Denmark he demanded from the States that part of the Revenues of the Clergy , and some of the Lands which belonged to the Nobility should be incorporated with the Crown , which they refusing to consent to , he nevertheless pursued his Intentions by open Violence . Whilest therefore some that were no loosers by it and hoped to partake of the Booty , sided with the King , the rest were consulting how to deliver themselves from these oppressions , and having renounced their obedience to King Albert , Margaret . sought for Protection by Margaret Queen of Denmark , which she granted them , upon condition that if she should deliver them from King Albert , she was to be Queen of Sweden . Which the Swedes being forced to accept of , she was proclaimed Queen of Sweden . This proved the occasion of unspeakable miseries , both Parties committing great Outrages in the Country , which was quite exhausted before , by King Albert who also at last was forced to pawn the Isle of Gothland for 20000 Nobles to the Prussian Knights of the Cross ; 12. Sept. notwithstanding which being not able to defray at length the Charges of the War , 1388. he challenged Queen Margaret to a Battel to be fought in the Plains of Talkoping in West-Gothland . The Battel of Tal●oping . The appointed day being come , a bloody Battel was fought in the before-mentioned Plain , where the Queen's Forces at last obtained the Victory , King Albert and his Son being taken Prisoners . But this Victory rather encreased than diminished the miseries under which the Kingdom had groaned before , because the Dukes of Mocklenburgh ; Earls of Holstein and the Hanse Towns sided with King Albert's Party , who sent constant Supplies from Rostock and Wismar by Sea to Stockholm , Calmar and other strong-holds in their possession , from whence the German Garrisons made miserable havock all round the Country , and the Sea Coasts were extreamly infested by Privateers , which had quite ruined the Trade of the Kingdom . This pernicious War having thus lasted seven Years , a Treaty of Peace was set on foot at Helsingburgh , which proving fruitless , 1394. another meeting was appointed at Aleholm , 1395. where it was agreed that the King , his Son , and the rest of the Prisoners of note should be set at Liberty , under condition that he within the space of three Years , resign all his pretensions to the Kingdom unto Queen Margaret , or else return to Prison ; and that in case of failure , the Cities of Lubeck , Hamburgh , Dantzick , Thorn , Elbingen , Saralsund , Stetin and Campen should oblige themselves to pay 60000 Marks of fine Silver to the Queen . Thus King Albert returned into Mecklenburgh , after he had reigned 23 Years in Sweden . He had notwithstanding this agreement not laid aside his hope of recovering his Kingdom , for which he had made great preparations , if his Son had not died , two Years after , when he at the appointed time resigned his pretensions , and the places as yet in his possession to the Queen , and at last ended his days in his native Country of Mecklenburgh . Thus Margaret became Queen over all the three Northern Kingdoms , which she governed with extraordinary Wisdom , yet so that the Danes were much better satisfied with her Government than the Swedes .

§ 9. Erick Duke of Pomerania . Queen Margaret having restored Peace to the Northren Kingdoms , her next care was to unite these three Crowns for ever on one Head . For which purpose she had sent for Henry a young Duke of Pomerania , her Sister's Son , whose name to please the Swedes , she changed into that of Erick . Union made at Calmar betwixt Sweden , Denmark and Norway . This Prince , tho' very young , was in the second Year after the releasing of King Albert , proclaimed King . In the Year next following , the Senators and Nobility of all the three Kingdoms being assembled at Calmar , 1396. where also the young Erick was crowned , the Union of the three Kingdoms was proposed , which at last was perfected and confirmed by Oath and by the Hands and Seals of the States of the three Kingdoms ; which might have tended to the great Advantage of these three Nations , if the Danes had not afterwards broke this Union , and endeavoured to make themselves Masters of Sweden , which proved the occasion of bloody Wars betwixt these two Kingdoms . But because King Erick was but very young Queen Margaret had the administration of Affairs during his Minority , when the Swedes and Norwegians soon perceived that the Articles of this Union were likely to be but ill observed , since the Queen preferred the Da●es and other Strangers much before them , and what Taxes she levied in Sweedland , were for the most part spent in Denmark , where she generally resided . In the eighth Year after King Erick was crowned , Queen Margates attempted to re-gain the Isle of Gothland from the Prussian Knights , without paying the Ransom ; but having not succeeded in her Enterpise , she redeemed it for 10000 Nobles . 1410. King Erick being by this time come to his riper Years , 1412. married Philippa the Daughter of Henry IV. King of England , and having after his Aunt 's Death , which happened not long after , taken upon him the sole management of Affairs , he was intangled in a tedious War with Henry Earl of Holstein , the Hanse Towns , and the Dukes of Mecklenburgh and Saxony , about the Dutchy of Sleswick , which at last cost him his three Kingdoms . For his Subjects being over charged with Taxes , which were employed towards the War , that could at the best only prove beneficial to Denmark , and their Commerce being interrupted with the Hanse Towns , it occasioned great discontents among them ; besides this , the King's Officers had used the Swedes very tyrannically , and the King had upon several occasions receded from the Articles of Union made at Calmar , especially when he sent the most antient Swedish Records into Denmark , which at last obliged the Swedes to take desperate Counsels . The first Insurrection was made by the Dalekarls , who being headed by a certain antient Nobleman in those parts called Engelbrecht Engelbrechtson , besieged one of the King's Officers called Josse Erichson , who had exercised great Tyranny over them , in his Castle , neither could they be appealed till he was deposed from his Office , and another put in his place . But this Calm did not last long , for the Boors being again stirred up by Engelbrecht over-run all the neighbouring Country , destroying with Fire and Sword , all such as would not side with them ; and being joined by one Erick Pue●● , who headed the Northlanders , they took a great many strongholds , killing all the Foreigners they met withal , whose seats they destroyed , and at last forced the Senate of the Kingdom assembled at Wadstena , to renounce their Allegiance to the King . These intestine Commotions obliged King Erick to make Peace with the Holst●i●●rs and the Hanse Towns , and to turn all his Forces against the Swedes . But his Fleet being for a great part destroyed by Storms , he arrived with the rest at Stockholm , but not being able to cope with so great a multitude , as Engelbrocht had raised against him ; he was fain to make a truce with them for twelve Months . In the mean while he retired into Denmark . leaving only a Garrison of 600 Men in the Castle of Stockholm . After his departure Engelbrocht was declared Generalissi●● over all the Forces of the Kingdom , who , at last upon the perswasion of the Archbishop Cluf , agreed to a Treaty to be set on foot betwixt the King and his Subjects , where it was agreed that the Swedes should again acknowledge him for their King , provided he would stand to the Union , which the King at that time consented to , reserving only to his free disposal the three Castles of Stockholm , Calmar and Nycoping , all the rest being to be committed to the Government of the Natives of Sweedland . Thus things seemed to be restored to the antient State , but no sooner had the King got the aforesaid Castles into his possession , but he began to recede , and having left a Garrison of 500 Men in the Castle of Stockholm , retired upon a sudden into Denmark . King Erick having thus left the Kingdom a second time , the Swedish Senators , who feared that he might soon return with a greater Force , being assembled at Arboka , called together the whole Nobility , and a Burger-Master out of each City , to consult about the present exigency of Affairs ; but before they could come to any steady resolution , Engelbrecht by the assistance of some of the Citizens of Stockholm , had made himself Master of that City , and besieged the King's Lieutenant in the Castle . The Treaty being thus broke of , and the flame of Rebellion rekindled , Charles Cnutson . the Marshal Charles Cnutson was declared Governour and General of the Kingdom : This was like to have occasioned great Disturbances , if Engelbrecht , who pretended to be injured by this Choice , had not been first appeased with great Promises , and afterwards murthered by one Benedict Suenson , with whom he had an old quarrel . 1436. But Erick Pu●ke the chief Companion of Engelbrecht taking up his Friend's Quarrel against his Murtherers that were protected by Charles Cnutson , it occasioned great Jealousies betwixt them . The Castles of Stockholm and Calmar being also in the King's possession , and some of the Chiefest of the Kingdom grown very jealous of the greatness of the Marshal , the Treaty was renewed with the King at Calmar , who came thither in Person , and promised to put into all Offices and Places of Trust , Natives of Sweden , and having made Benedict Suenson Governour of the Castle of Calmar , appointed an Assembly of the Senate and Nobility to be held in September following when he would be ready to surrender all the Strong-holds into the hands of the Native Subjects of Sweden , But in the mean time the King in his Voyage from Gothland to Suderkoping , was overtaken by a violent Tempest , wherein most of his Ships having been lost , he narrowly escaped drowing . As soon as the Swedes got notice of this Misfortune , not knowing whether the King was alive or dead , it was resolved that the last Treaty made at Calmar should remain in Force . Pursuant to this Decree , the Marshal having partly by great Promises , partly by Threats , got into the possession of all the Castles of the Kingdom , seemed to want nothing to accomplish his Designs , but the Title of a King , where●t Erick Pueke being vexed to the Soul , raised a great number of Boors against him , who having defeated the Marshal and his Forces , would quickly have put an end to his Greatness , if he under pretence of reconciliation had not invited Erick Pueke to an interview , and notwithstanding his Faith given , sent him to Stockholm , where he was beheaded . In the mean while , the Senators of the Kingdom having got notice that the King was alive , 1437. appointed an Assembly to be held at Calmar , where the King was to fulfil the former Treaty ; but the King not coming at the appointed time , Commissioners were sent into Denmark to treat with him about the performance of the Agreement made at Calmar , which he refusing to do , they made an underhand League with some of the great Men in Denmark against King Erick . the effects of which he felt soon after . Whilest these things were transacting in Denmark , the Marshal had by his cunning got the whole Power of the Kingdom into his hands , and obtained from the Senate in Sweden , to appoint a certain day for the King to appear in Sweden , and put an end to those Differences that were then betwixt him and the Estates , and in case of a refusal , they renounced their Allegiance to him . But the Archbishop Oluf , and some of the Chief Men of the Kingdom , that were dissatisfied at the Marshal's proceedings did so far prevail by their Authority , that a General Assembly of all the Senators of the three Northern Kingdoms should be held at Calmar , which in all likelihood might have had better Success than before , if the Archbishop had not been poysoned in his Journey thither by the Marshal . Notwithstanding this , the rest of the Senators appeared at Calmar , but the King's Commissioners refusing to acknowledge and to confirm the Treaty made at Calmar , which the Swedes insisted upon , the whole meeting proved fruitless . In the mean time King Erick was retired with all his Treasure out of Denmark into Gothland , and the Danish Senators who as well as the Swedes had been dissatisfied with the King for a considerable time before , agreed with the Swedes to renounce their Allegiance to him , and to choose one in his stead , that would maintain the Union betwixt these Kingdoms . The Danes therefore sent to Christopher Duke of Bavaria , Christopher Duke of Bavaria . who being King Erick's Sister's Son , had for some time lived in Denmark , desiring him to accept of that Crown . 1439. As soon as he arrived in Denmark , Ambassadors were sent to the Marshal and the other Senators of Sweden , that were then at Calmar , to notifie the arrival of the Duke of Bavaria , and to treat with them to receive him also for their King , as the only means to maintain the Union and Peace betwixt those Kingdoms . The Marshal and his Party were not a little surprised at this Proposition ; but perceiving that , at the Dyet held at Arboga , most of the Estates were inclined to maintain the Union , and receive Christopher for their King , they also agreed with the rest of the Estates , and Christopher was received by the Marshal and the Senators with great Pomp at Calmar , from whence being conducted to Stockholm , and from thence to Vpsal , he was there crowned King of Sweden , and soon after returned into Denmark . After he had reigned four years , he married Dorothee the Daughter of John Marquis of Brandenburgh ; and King Erick , who was yet in the possession of Gothland , doing considerable damage to the Swedish Ships , he was prevailed upon by the Senate to undertake an Expedition into Gothland . Whilst every body was in great expectation about the success of this Enterprise , he upon the sudden clapt up a Peace with King Erick , leaving him in the quiet possession of Gothland . 1448. He died at Helsinburgh , in his Journey to Joncoping , whither he had called together the Senate and Nobility of Sweden , having left great Legacies to several Churches in Sweden ; but the Danes , who had all his Ships , Ammunition , rich Furniture and ready Money in their hands , would not pay one groat of it .

After the death of K. Christopher , Charles Cnutson . the Estates of Sweden that were assembled at Stockholm were divided into two parties , some of them being for deferring the Election of a new King , till such time as the Senators of the 3 kingdoms could , at a general Assembly chuse a King , according to the Union agreed upon betwixt them ; but the Marshal and his Party , which was the strongest , were , without having any respect to the Union , for chusing immediately a King of their own : this Contest lasted for several days , and that with such heats that they were ready to come to blows , till at last the Marshal Charles Cnutson's Party prevailed , who was chosen King of Sweden . But the Danes offered the Crown of Denmark to Adolf Duke of Holstein , and he by reason of his old Age , having refused to accept of it , they made Christian Earl of Oldenburg , the Duke's Sister's Son , their King . Charles , at the very beginning of his Reign , besieged King Erick in the Castle of Wisby , who having deluded the Swedish Generals with a Truce , did , in the mean while provide himself with all Necessaries , and was at last relieved by Christian King of Denmark ; who sent him into Pomerania , where , in the City of Rugen , he ended his days , without making any further pretension to the Crown .

In the mean while the Norwegians , except some of the Nobility , had made Charles also their King , which occasioned almost a continual War betwixt him and Christian king of Denmark , in which King Charles was pretty successful at first ; but after the death of the brave Thord Bonde , his General , who was barbarously murthered ; King Christian , with the Assistance of the Archbishop of Sweden and several others of the Swedish Nobility , who were Enemies to King Charles , proved too hard for him : for the Archbishop having surprised the King's Forces at Strengness , besieged him in the City of Stockholm ; so that King Charles finding himself reduced to the utmost Extremity , resolved to embarque with all his Treasure for Dantzick , where he arrived safely , after a Voyage of three days , in the tenth year of his Reign . Christian I. No sooner had King Charles left the Kingdom , 1458. but the Archbishop , having got all the Stronholds of the Kingdom into his hands , sent to Christian King of Denmark , to invite him into Sweden , who being arrived with a considerable Fleet at Stockholm , was , by the Senate and Nobility declared King of Sweden , and crowned at Vpsal . He reigned at first with a general satisfaction of the Swedes ; but some years after , by his Cruelty and heavy Impositions laid upon the People , became odious to them : for he not only caused some of the Great men , that were falsly accused of holding a Correspondency with King Charles , to be tortured to death , but also exercised great Cruelty against a great number of Boors , that were risen in Arms against him ; and having conceived a jealousie of the Archbishop , he caused him to be carried Prisoner to Copenhagen . This so exasperated Katil the Bishop of Lyncoping that he raised an Insurrection against the King , and forced him to retire into Denmark : and tho the King returned the year next following with a considerable Army , yet being defeated by the Bishop's Forces , he was forced to leave the Kingdom a second time ; 1464. and the Bishop having laid siege to the City and Castle of Stockholm , where King Christian had left a Garrison , sent for assistance to King Charles , who being glad of this Opportunity , came with some Forces ( which he had gathered in Poland and Prussia ) into Sweden , where he was no sooner arrived , but the City of Stockholm was surrendred to him , and he again received as King of Sweden . But this Joy was of no long continuance ; for a difference being arisen betwixt him and Bishop Katil , about the exchanging the Archbishop that was Prisoner at Copenhagen , the said Bishop did underhand agree with King Christian to restore him to the Kingdom of Sweden , under condition that he should set the Archbishop at liberty . According to this agreement , a Reconciliation being made betwixt K Christian and the Archbishop ; the latter was received very splendidly by the Bishop , and was no sooner arrived in Sweden , but having raised some Forces against King Charles , defeated him in a bloody Battel fought upon the Ice near Stockholm , and forced him to abjure his Right and Pretension to the Kingdom . After the King's Resignation , the Archbishop made himself Master of all the Strong-holds of the Kingdom , without any opposition , except that one Nils Sture , a particular Friend of K. Charles's , traversed sometimes his Designs . This Nils Sture and one Erick Axelson , Governour of Wibourg in Finland , having at last made a party against him , play'd their Game so well that Erick Axelson , Erick Axelson , who had married King Charles's Daughter was declared Regent of the Kingdom . 1466. But the A. Bish. was obliged to surrender Stockholm and some other Strong holds into the Regent's hands . Nevertheless the hatred betwixt the two exasperated Factions , headed by Nils Sture and Erick Nilson ( of which party was also the Archbishop ) continued with great animosity . Erick Nilson and his Party , under pretence of protecting the Archbishop against the Power of King Charles and his adherents , endeavoured the Restauration of King Christian , but Nils Sture and his Party openly declared , that they would either have King Charles restored , or at least maintain the Regent in his Station . These two Parties did not only commit great Insolencies and Murthers , making great havock all over the Country , but at last also came to an open War , wherein the Archbishop's Party being worsted , he died for grief ; and the Common People in hopes to put an end to the miseries of the Kingdom once more restored Charles to the Crown .

But Erick Nilson , Erick Carlson , T●olle and some others having again raised some Forces against him , 1468. and surprised his Army during the time of the Truce , again forced him to seek for shelter in the Dalers , whither being pursued by Erick Carlson , he with an unequal number gave him a signal overthrow , forcing him to retire into Denmark King Charles being soon after returned to Stockholm , ( which City and the whole Kingdom he recommended before his death to Steen Scure his Sister's Son ) he there died in the same year , leaving the Kingdom in such a confusion , 1470. that for a twelve month after , there was a meer Anarchy in Sweden , some having declared for King Christian , some for Steen Sture to be made Regent of the Kingdom . At last the Government was committed to Steen Sture , who having vanquished King Christian in a memorable Battel fought near Stockholm , 1471. and forced him to retire with his broken Forces by Sea into Denmark ▪ got into the possession of the whole Kingdom of Sweden . And tho' King Christian kept the Regent of Sweden in a continual alarm as long as he lived , and several meetings were held concerning his Restauration , yet there was no open War betwixt the two Kingdoms , and Steen Sture reigned for a considerable time with a general applause ; so that King Christian during his Regency , never durst return into Sweden , but died in Denmark in the year 1481.

After the Death of King Christian , 1481. the Danes and Norwegians having made John the Son of Christian their King , the Swedes also agreed with King John upon certain Articles , which the King having confirmed to them under his Seal , he was declared King of Sweden . But the Regent Steen Sture , notwithstanding this solemn Transaction remained in the possession of the Kingdom for fourteen Years after , under pretence that the Danes had not fulfilled their Promise according to the Articles of the Treaty , during which time the Kingdom was miserably afflicted by intestine Divisions , and the Wars which were carried on against Denmark and Russia . The Senators therefore of Sweden having in vain endeavoured to perswade Steen Sture to lay down his Office , at last deposed him from the Regency , and craved Assistance from King John , John II. who having defeated Steen Sture and his Party near Stockholm , was by the Senate and the Regent himself received as King of Sweden and his Son Christian declared his Successor after his death in that Kingdom . 1497. This King reigned very peaceably for a while , but after some Years by the perswasions of some Courtiers , fell into the same Errour which had been the undoing of his Predecessors : For under pretence that the Revenues of the Crown were extreamly diminished , he obliged Steen Sture and several others to surrender the Fiefs belonging to the Crown , which they were in possession of , some of which he bestowed upon the Danes and Germans . Besides this , his Governours had committed great Insolencies in their Provinces , which so exasperated the People , that as soon as the News of his defeat in Ditmarsen was spread over Sweden , the Swedes being headed by Steen Sture , assembled at Wadstana , where having renounced their Allegiance , they bid open defiance to him , alledging that he , had not fulfilled the Articles of the Treaty made at Calmar .

The King being surprised at this unexspected News sailed forthwith for Denmark , leaving the Queen with a good Carrison at Stockholm , which City was thereupon besieged by Sture ; who being soon after again constituted Regent of the Kingdom , forced the Castle of Stockholm to a surrender , and got almost all the rest of the Strongholds in Sweden into his possession ; notwithstanding which , the Danes burnt Elfsburgh and Oresteen , and committed great Cruelties in West-Gothland , under the Conduct of Christian King John's Son , who had done the like not long before in Norway , where he had rooted out almost all the Noble Families . Yet because the Queen was as yet in Sweden , the fury of the Danes was for a while appeased by the intercession of the Lubeckers and the Cardinal Raimow , who having procured Liberty for her to return into Denmark , she was conducted by the Regent to the Frontiers of Swaland . But in his return to Ioncoping , he died suddenly , and his death having been kept secret for a while , there was a strong suspition that he had been poysoned by Mereta the Widow of Cnut Alfson , thereby to open the way to her Bridegroom Suante Sture , to the Regency of the Kingdom . As soon as the news of the Regent's death was spread all over the Kingdom , 1503. the Estates convened at Stockholm , where it was disputed for some time , whether King John should be recalled , or Suante Nilson Sture should be made Regent , till the latter having prevailed , the said Sture was made Regent of the Kingdom . 1504. Then the War was renewed with King John , which was carried on with various Success , both Parties committing great devastations , without any other remarkable advantage . The Danes having at first stirred up the Emperour , the Pope and the Russians against the Swedes , did considerable mischief , but the Regent having made a Peace with the Russians , and set the Lubeckers against Denmark ▪ retook Calmar and Bornholm , and would in all likelihood have made greater Progresses , if he had not soon after died at Westekaos , in the eighth year of his Regency . After the death of this Regent , there were again great Divisions in the Senate about the Election of a new Regent ; 1511. the younger sort were for choosing Steen Sture the deceased Regent's Son : Steen Sture the younger . But the Archbishop and Bishops , and the rest of the antient Senators , would have elected Gustavus Trolle an antient Wise and experienced Man . After several prorogations and very hot debates , 1512. at last Steen Sture , who was favoured by the common People , and had most of the Strongholds of the Kingdom in his hands , was declared Regent , and King John died in the year next following at Ablburgh in Jutland . 1513. After his death , the Danes and Norwegians had declared Christian his Son their King but the Swedes who had not forgot his cruelties formerly committed in West-Gothland desired time to consider of a thing of such importance . King Christian finding himself after four years tergiversation deceived in his hopes , and that the Regent would not part with his Power by fair means , did not only stir the Pope Leo X. up against him , but also brought Gustavus Trolle the new Arbhbishop by great Presents over to his side , and perswaded the Russians to make an in-road into Finland . Steen Sture being soon convinced of the Archbishop's sinister Intentions , had tendered the Oath to him , which he refusing to take , was besreged by the Regent in his Castle of Stecka . Then it was that the Archbishop called King Christian to his Assistance , who having taken some Ships loaden with Amunition belonging to the Regent , and in vain endeavoured to relieve the besieged Castle , the War was begun on both sides . For the Archbishop having been forced to surrender the Castle and his Office , Pope Leo thereupon excommunicated the Regent , laying a Fine of 100000 Ducats upon the Swedes , and enjoyning the execution thereof to King Christian . Pursuant to this Decree , the King of Denmark fell with a great Army into Sweden , and was met by the Regent and his Forces in West-Gothland , but the Regent having received a Wound there , of which he died soon after at Strengness , his Army first retreated , and being deprived of a Leader , afterwards dispersed . King Christian then having divided his Army , sent one part into West and East-Gothland , which were soon subdued , and marched with the rest to Strengness . 1520.

The Archbishop taking hold of this opportunity , reassumed his Archi-Episcopal Dignity , and being assisted by two other Bishops and seven of the Senators of the Kingdom did declare Christian King of Sweden in the name of the Estates at Vpsal . The King having been Crowned by the Archbishop Trolle , and received the City of Stockh●lm by surrender into his hands , treated the Swedes at 〈◊〉 with abundance of humanity , but soon after , found out a Weapon wherewith to destroy his Adversaries , and this was the business concerning the degradation of the Archbishop and the ruining of his Castle of Stecka . For tho' the King by an Amnestie had pardoned all past Offences , yet no satisfaction having been given to the Pope , the Archbishop in his Name , demanded a million pounds of Silver in reparation of the damages done to the Church at Vpsal , and his Castle of Stecka . And to make up the matter , it was pretended that Gunpowder had been conveyed into the King's Palace to blow him up . Steen Sture's Widow , his Mother in Law , fifteen others besides the Senare and Commonalty of Stockholm , were accused as Actors and Abettors , who were all condemned as Hereticks , ninety four of them , all People of Note , being beheaded at Stockholm and their Servants hanged up with Boots and Spurs . The deceased Regent's body having been digged up , was exposed among the rest of the executed Persons , and the Quarters set up and down the Country . His Widow and Mother in Law were forced to purchase their Lives with the loss of their whole Estate , and were nevertheless with a great many other Women of Quality committed to Prison . In Finland , Hemoning Gudde , notwithstanding his former Services done to him , was with ten more executed by the King's Command , the Abbot of the Convent at Nydala was with eleven Monks drowned by his Orders , and two Gentlemen's Sons , one of nine , the other of seven years , beheaded at Joncoping , and after he had in this manner murthered 600 of his Swedish Subjects he returned into Denmark

§ 9. But in the mean while that King Christian was busied in bringing the Swedes under the Danish yoke , by all manner of inhumane Barbarities , Gustavus I. Gustavus Erichson ( whose Father had been beheaded by the Tyrant , and his Mother thrown in Prison ) had sheltered himself among the Dalek●rls , who being made sensible of the danger which threatened them and the whole Kingdom , had made Gustave their Head , whose example being followed by the Estates of Sweden , they soon after declared him Regent of that Kingdom , except the Archbishop and his Party , that remained firm to the Danish Interest . King Christian being violently exasperated at Gustave , revenged himself upon his Mother and two Sisters , whom he sent from Stokholm to Copenhagen , where they perished in Prison ; he issued also out an Order , that no quarter should be given to any Swedish Nobleman , and committed great Barbarities wherever he came . The Swedes on the other hand , under the Conduct of their Regent Gustave , repaid the Danes with the same Coin wherever they met them , and with the Assistance of the Lubeckers besieged Stockholm , which was as yet in King Christian's Possession , when they received the joyful news out of Denmark , that the Jutlanders had renounced their Allegiance to King Christian . 1523. This so encouraged Gustave and his Party , that they did not only drive King Christian's Forces out of most Provinces of the Kingdom , retook Ocland and Borkholm , but also recovered the Castle and City of Calmar , and made Gustave King of Sweden , who thereupon immediately summoned Stockholm to a surrender , and the Garrison being without hopes of relief , surrendred the City and Castle to the Lubeckers , who restored the same to King Gustave . In the mean while King Christian was retired with his Queen into the Netherlands , and the Jutlanders having made Frederick I. King Christian's Uncle , their King , would fain have perswaded the Swedes to follow their example , but these being not ambitious of continuing the Union with Denmark , had refused their proffer , and chosen Gustave their King . But King Gustave finding the Treasury mightily exhausted by these long intestine Wars , he not only taxed the Clergy to pay considerable Sums towards the payment of his Souldiers , but also made bold with the superfluous Ornaments of the Churches , against which , Brask the Bishop of Lincoping having protested and made complaint thereof to Johannes Magnus the Pope's Legate , Peter Bishop of Westeraas endeavoured to raise an Insurrection among the Dalekerls .

But whilest these Bishops were employed in maintaining their Privileges , the Protestant Religion had begun to spread all over the Kingdom . The same was by some Merchants and German Souldiers first introduced into Sweden , and some Swedish Students , that had studied at Wittenbergh , had brought along with them into their Native Country , both the Doctrine and Writings of Luther . Among these one Olaus Petri was the chiefest , who having been an Auditor of Luther , at his return into Sweden was made a Canon and Protonotary to the Bishops of Strenguess : this Man after the death of the Bishop , having brought Lars Anderson the Archdeacon over to his Opinion , began not only to defend Luther's Doctrine publickly in the Schools , but also to publish the same from the Pulpit . The Bishop being absent , Dr. Nils Dean of that Chapter , with all his might opposed this new Doctrine , which being come to the King's Ears , he advised with Lars Anderson , who having instructed him in the chief Points of it , Reformation begun in Sweden . and in what manner a great many German Princes had taken away the superfluous riches of the Clergy , began to hearken to his Opinion , resolving nevertheless to go on cautiously in this business , and to see how some Princes in Germany should proceed in this Affair , as also how the Bishops in Sweden would relish this Doctrine . In the mean while Pope Hadrian IV. had sent his Legate into Sweden to endeavour the extirpation of this Heresie , and the Clergy of Sweden grew every day more refractory , refusing to pay the Taxes imposed upon them , as being contrary to their Privileges . On the other hand , Olaus Petri being encouraged by the King , was not silent , but defended his Cause both by Dispute and Writing , with such Success , that the King not only constituted him Minister in the great Church of Stockholm , and put into other vacant Church-Benefices , such Ministers as had studied at Wittenbergh , but also constituted over the Dominicans and Black Fryars , such Priors as he knew to be faithful to him , and such of them as were Foreigners he banished the Kingdom , and told unfeignedly to Bishop Brask ▪ that he could not deny Protection to the Lutherans , as long as they were not convinced of any Crime or Errour .

But all this while one Soren Norby , who still adhered to King Christian , had Gothland in his Possession , and did considerable damage to the Swedes in their Trade ; against him King Gustavus having sent Bernhard van Melan with some Forces to reduce the said Island , and Norby finding himself too weak put himself and the Island under the Protection of Denmark , which occasiaoned some differences between these two Northern Kings ▪ who had been very good Friends ever before . About this time Olaus Petri was publickly married in the great Church at Stockholm , and the King had not only demanded the Tenths of the Clergy towards the maintenance of his Forces , but also Quartered some of his Horse in the Monasteries , which so incensed Bishop Brask , that he forbid in his whole Diocess so much as to name the Doctrine of Luther . But the King having understood that Olaus Petri was busie in Translating the New Testament into the Swedish Tongue , First Translation of the New Testament into Swedish . commanded the Archbishop , to take care that the Roman Catholicks also should make a Translation , which though it ●elished very ill with the Bishops , yet were they fain to comply with the King's command , who , to mortifie them the more , also ordered a Disputation to be held at Vpsal betwixt Dr. Pieter Galle and Olaus Petri , concerning the chiefest Points in question betwixt the Roman Catholicks and Lutherans , where Olaus Petri had much the better , and his Translation was approved of before the others , which had been patched up by so many Translators . In the mean time the Danish Clergy had given a considerable Subsidy to their King to be employed against King Christian , wherefore King Gustave , taking hold of this opportunity , demanded a considerable supply from the Swedish Clergy , but these objecting that it was against their Privileges and Rights , the King ordered the same to be examined in another Dispute betwixt Olaus Petri , and Dr. Pieter Galle , and because they were not able to prove their Title out of the Holy Scripture , the King concluded them to be dependent on his pleasure , and at the Dyet held at Westeraos not only demanded a supply from the Clergy , but also proposed that the superfluous Bells should be taken out of the Churches , and be employed towards the payment of the Debt due to the Lubeckers . And because the Archbishop grew more troublesome every day , the King first took him into Custody , and afterwards sent him Ambassadour into Poland , from whence he never returned into Sweden . He also commanded another Disputation to be held concerning the chief Points in question betwixt the Lutherans and Roman Catholicks , which however met with great opposition from Bishop Brask , and the rest of the Roman Catholick Clergy , who set up a Country Fellow , against Gustave . This Fellow pretended to be the Son of Steen Sture ( notwithstanding he was dead a twelve month before ) and having got a party among the Dalekerls , and being upheld by Bishop Brask and the Bishop of Druntheim in Norway , 1527. and encouraged in his undertaking by King Frederick of Denmark , laid open claim to the Crown , threatning all the Lutherans and especially the City of Stockholm with Fire and Sword , which was the most forward in settling the Protestant Religion .

About the same time the Emperour had besieged Pope Clement VII . in the Castle of St. Angelo , wherefore King Gustave taking hold of this Juncture , appointed a Dyet to be held at Westeraos , where in his Declaration he professed ; that the Roman Catholick Clergy had made it their business to charge him with making Innovation in Religion for no other reason , but that he would not let them domineer over the Laymen , and had forced them to submit to the Civil Power , and to give part of their superfluous Riches , some of which they had got by fraud , towards easing the Common People of those burthensome Taxes ( which he hitherto had been forced to impose upon them . ) And that for the same Reason the Emperour himself had been forced lately to teach the Pope his duty . The same thing was proposed by the King to the whole Dyet , where he told them ; that the superfluous Revenues of the Clergy ought to be annexed to the Crown , and especially such Lands as since the year 1454 had been given to the Clergy , should be restored to the right Heirs , promising withal that the Common People should be for the future eased of their Taxes ; in case they would give their consent to the reduction of the Revenues of the Clergy . And the better to get the consent of the Temporal Lords and Senators he made a great Banquet , where he gave the next place to himself to these Senators , whereas the same had belonged formerly to the Bishops , who now were forced to be contented with the next place after them , the third place was given to the rest of the Nobility , the fourth to the inferiour Clergy , the fifth to the Citizens , the sixth to the Boors ; which so exasperated the Clergy that they assembled in the Church of St. Egidius , and secretly took a resolution among themselves not to obey the King in this Point , not to surrender any of their Revenues , or to recede from their antient Religion . And Bishop Brask freely told the King , that the Clergy of the Kingdom had such a strict dependency on the Pope , that without his consent they could not do any thing whatsoever . Which as it met with great approbation from all the rest of the Clergy , and from some of the Temporal Estates , so the King was so incensed thereat , that he immediately rose from his Seat , and told the Estates that he was ready to Abdicate the Kingdom , if they would repay him his Charges and Monies which he had laid out for that use , and to show them that he was in earnest , retired for several days with some of his chief Officers into the Castle . The Estates being much surprised at the King's resolution , especially when they saw the Citizens of Stockholm to be stedfast to the King , and that Dr. Peter Galle was worsted by Olaus Petri in a late Disputation , thought it their best way to beg the King's pardon and to intreat him not to resign the Crown . Upon their reiterated request the King having been at last prevailed upon to come out of the Castle , demanded from several Bishops to surrender into his hands their Castles , and to subscribe a Decree made at this Dyet , concerning the regulating of the Clergy , which they were fain to comply withal . As soon as the Dyet was ended he took not only from the Monasteries such Lands as had been given to them since the year 1454. Church Lands reduced in Sweden . but also several other Church Lands and precious moveables , all which he annexed to the Crown . In the mean while the Bishops and their party were not idle , but were contriving all manner of mischief against the King , though with small success . For the Dalekerls , who had made an Insurrection , were frightened by the King to comply with his commands , and to send away their Leader , the supposititious S●ure ; and Sigismund King of Poland , unto whom the dissatisfied party had proffered the Crown , did not think fit to accept of it ; so that Bishop Brask , despairing at last of the Roman Catholick Cause , under pretence of a Journey retired to Dantzick .

The King having surmounted all these difficulties , thought convenient not to defer any longer his Coronation , 1528. which having been solemnized at Vpsal with the usual Solemnity : he summoned the Rebellious Dalekerls to appear before him at Thuana , threatning them with Fire and Sword if they did not appear at the appointed time ; The Rebels being throughly frightened by the King's severity appeared without Arms at the appointed place , where he caused several of the Ringleaders to be Executed , and dismissed the rest , after having promised to be obedient for the future . In Helsingland he appeased the tumultuous multitude with threats , and fined their Leaders , and having called together a Synod of the Clergy at Orebro , where the King's Chancellour was President , the chiefest Points of the Popish Doctrine were there abolished , and in their stead the Protestant Religion introduced , where it was also ordered , that a Protestant Professor of Divinity should be Constituted in each Cathedral . This wrought in a manner Miracles among the Inferiour Clergy and Monks , The Protestant Religion Established in Sweden . who left their Monasteries , were married , and became Ministers in the Protestant Churches . But the Bishops and their party entred into an Association with some of the dissatisfied Lords in West Gothland , who accused the King of Heresie and other Crimes , renouncing their Allegiance to him . These were Headed by Thuro Johanson the Rix Marshal , who raised an Insurrection among the Dalekerls , and endeavoured also to stir up the West and East Gothes , whom he persuaded to make Magnus Brynteson , a Man in great Authority among them , their King . But the King having again appeased this tumult by granting his Pardon to them , Magnus the Bishop of Skara and Thuro Johnson fled into Denmark , but Magnus Bayteson , Nils Olofson and Thuro Erickson having been Convicted of High Treason at the Dyet held at Str●ngness , the two first were Executed , and the third paid a considerable Fine . The King then , to settle the minds of his Subjects having renewed his Pardon , caused the superfluous Bells to be taken out of the Steeples , the same being granted to him by the Estates towards the payment of a Debt due to the Lubeckers . Which proved a new Subject for an Insurrection ; for the Dalekerls not only seised upon some of these Bells , but also pretended to hold an Assembly at Arboga , to consult about the Deposing of King Gustave , which obliged the King to call together the Estates at Vpsal , whither he came in person with a good Army , and meeting with great opposition from the mutinous People , ordered his Soldiers to fire among them , which so terrified them that upon their Knees they begged his Pardon , promising to be more Obedient for the future . Things being thus pretty well settled the King married Catharine the Daughter of Magnus Duke of Saxen Lauenburgh , and having received intelligence that King Christian was landed in Norway with a considerable Force , he sent some Troops under the Command of Lars Sigeson the Rix Marshal to the Frontiers of Norway , who having been joined by some Danes , forced King Christian to raise the Siege of Banus , 1533. who at last surrendring himself to the Danes , was by Frederick King of Denmark , committed to Prison , where he died after twenty seven years imprisonment . But no sooner was this storm over , but the Lubeckers raised another against Sweden . For , they having demanded from the King , to grant them the whole Trade on his Northern Sea Coasts , which he refused to consent to , peremptorily demanded their Debt , and having joyned with a great many Refugies of King Christian's party , and made John Earl of Hoya , who had married King Gustave's Sister , their Head , did propose to themselves no less than the Conquest of the Northern Kingdoms , having inticed some Citizens of Stockholm under pretext of making that City a free Hanse Town , to lay violent hands on the King : And after the death of Frederick King of Denmark , when that Kingdom was divided into several Factions persuaded the Senate of Copenhagen and Malmoe to enter into the Confederacy of the Hanse Towns . Being thus strengthened by a considerable party within that Kingdom they had great success against the Danes , till these having declared Christian III. their King , and being assisted with Mony , Ships , and Forces by King Gustave beat the Lubeckers near He●sinburgh , and afterwards in a Sea-Fight defeated their whole Fleet , and carried a great many of their Ships into Denmark , Soon after King Gustave to strengthen himself the better at Home , married Margaret the Daughter of Abraham Erickson , Governor of West Gothland , which Alliance stood afterwards his Son Duke John in great stead against King Erick . King Gustave having also conceived a jealousie against the Emperour Charles V. whom he suspected to be for making Palls Grave Frederick , Son in Law of the imprisoned King Christian , King over the Northern Kingdoms , took a resolution to strengthen himself with the Alliance of France . To put this design in execution he sent his Secretary into France , who having first made a Treaty of Commerce betwixt these two Crowns , did also afterwards conclude a defensive Alliance betwixt them .

Gustave having thus settled his Affairs called a Dyet to be held at Westeraas , 1542. where the Estates of the Kingdom declared the Succession Hereditary for the future , 1544. Constituting Erick Gustaveson , The Kingdom of Sweden made Hereditary , and the Popish Religion abolished . who was then but eleven years old , his Father's Successor . At the same Dyet the Popish Religion was quite abolished , and the Lutheran Religion Established in Sweden , the King and the Estates having obliged themselves by a Solemn Oath to maintain the same with all their power . In the year 1551. King Gustave , after the death of his Queen Margaret , married Catharine the Daughter of Gustave Olufson , and ruled the Kingdom of Sweden with great Tranquility , except that the Russians had faln into Livonia and Finland , with whom having made a Peace , and being now grown very old he by his Testament gave to John his second Son the Dukedom of Finland , to the third Son Magnus the Dukedom of East Gothland , and to Charles , 1556. the youngest of all , the Dukedom of Sudermanland , Nericke and Wermeland , which Countries they were to hold in Fief from the Crown . But his eldest Son Erick , who was ●o succeed him in the Kingdom , having been persuaded by his Tutor , Dionysius Burraeus a Frenchman to make his Addresses to Elizabeth Queen of England , thereby to strengthen his Interest against his Brothers , sent the said Dionysius into England , who having writ to his Master that nothing was wanting to make up the Match but his presence , the Prince would have gone forthwith into England , if his Father had not opposed it , who sent in his stead his second Son John , and Steen Sture . These being very civilly entertained by Queen Elizabeth , at their return Home told the Prince that they believed nothing to be wanting to compleat the Marriage but his presence , which was very joyfully received by the Prince . But the old and wise King , who soon perceived , that they had mistaken Complements for Realities , thought it advisable to Communicate the business with the Estates Assembled at Stockholm , who after having confirmed the former Hereditary Union and the King's Testament , at last gave their consent to this Marriage , granting a considerable Supply towards the defraying of the charges of this Marriage . But whilst the Prince was preparing for his Voyage , part of his Baggage having been sent before , he being near ready to follow in person , King Gustave dyed at Stockholm , 1559. and King Erick , not thinking it advisable to trust his Brother with the Kingdom , was forced to put by his Journey into England .

§ 10. Eri●k XIV . King Erick was twenty seven years of age when he succeeded his Father in the Kingdom . His first business was to prescribe certain new Articles to his Brothers , thereby to maintain the Royal Authority against them , which though sorely against their will , they were forced to subscribe at the Dyet held at Arboga . 1561. At his Coronation he first introduced the Titles of Earls and Barons into Sweden , The Titles of Earls and Barons introduced . alledging that in an Hereditary Kingdom there ought to be also Hereditary Dignities among the Nobility . At his very first Accession to the Crown he was engaged in the Troubles , which then sorely afflicted the Li●landers . For some of them having put themselves under the Protection of Denmark , some under the Crown of Poland , those of Reval and the Nobility of Esthenland , that were nearest to Sweden , sought for Protection to King Erick Whereupon the King having sent an Army under the Command of Claes Horn ( who was joyfully received at Reval ) took them into his Protection , and confirmed to the City and Nobility their former Privileges . As soon as the Poles heard of the arrival of the Swedish Army at Reval , they sent an Ambassadour to demand Reval from the Swedes , who having received no other answer , but that the Swedes had at least as good a Title to Reval , as the Poles , returned Home again , and the Swedish Garrison that was besieged by the ●olish Forces in Reval , forced them to quit that Enterprise . Soon after , the King being fully resolved to pursue his intentions concerning the Marriage with Queen Elizabeth of England , Embarked at Elshorgth to go thither in person , but was by a violent Tempest forced to return . As he was very inconstant in his Temper , and very Superstitious , being much addicted to Astrology , so after this misfortune he laid aside the thoughts of this Marriage for a while , making his Addresses by his Ambassadours , and with great Presents , to Mary Queen Scotland , and the Princess of Lorain both at one time , and not long after to Katharine the Daughter of the Landgrave of Hessen , but succeeded in neither . In the mean while his Borther John had married Katharine Daughter of Sigismund King of Poland , which having been done without Ring Erick's good liking , who was both mistrustful of the Poles and his Brother , put him into such a rage , that he besieged his Brother in the Castle of Aboa , which having been taken by Strategem , he caused him to be sentenced to death , which Sentence he however changed into a perpetual Imprisonment for that time , but seemed to repent of it afterwards , when the Russians demanded the said Katharine , his Brother's Wife ▪ in Marriage for their Great Duke . The Poles to revenge this Affront , stirred up the Danes and Lubeckers against the Swedes , and the Danes having affronted the Swedish Ambassadours at Copenhagen , preparations were made on all sides , which soon broke out into a War , wherein the Swedes routed the Danes and Lubeckers in several Sea Engagements , but also lost their Admiral ( which Ship carried two hundred Brass Guns ) and by Land there was great havock made on both sides , with almost equal Fortune , except that the Swedes had pretty good success in Livonia . But whilst King Erick was engaged in War with all his Neighbours round about him , the inward discontents began to increase more and more among his Subjects by the ill management which he had shown both in his Affairs and Amours , being surrounded with a Seraglio of Mistrisses , ( among whom one Katharine , an ordinary Country Wench had the greatest sway over him , whom he also married afterwards , whereby he lost his Authority among the Nobility . ) Besides this , he was guided in most concerns of moment by one Joran ●erson his Favourite , and his former Tutor Dionysius Beuraeus , who fomented a continual jealousie betwixt him and the Family of the Stures , which at last broke out into a fatal revenge . For there having been Witnesses suborned against Suarte Sture and his Son Erick , they were with several others of that Family not only committed to Prison , and miserably murthered there by the King's command , but he also with his own hands stab'd Nils Sture , and repenting soon after of so barbarous a Fact caused his former Tutor Dionysius , who advised it , to be slain by his Guards .

A great part of the Kingdom , having been put into confusion by these enormous cruelties , of which the King feared the consequences , he thought it his best way , to prevent further inconveniencies , to set his Brother John at Liberty under certain conditions , and to lay the blame of these barbarities upon Joran Peerson his Favourite , who having been committed to Prison the Intestine Commotions seem'd to be appeased for the present . But the King having not long after been very succesful in several Engagements against the Danes , whom he beat quite out of Denmark he soon after released his Favourite , and not only declared him free from any imputation , but also justified the death of those Lords formerly murthered at Vpsal . By his advise also he would have taken from his Brothers those Provinces which were allotted them by their Father's Testament , in exchange of which he proffered them some Possessions in Livonia . But the Brothers having refused this proffer , he again resolved to make away his Brother John at the Nuptials which were to be celebrated at Stockholm betwixt his Mistress Catharine and himself , and to give his Widow in Marriage to the Grand Duke of Russia . But the Brothers having been advertised of the King 's sinister intentions , did not appear at the Wedding , and having made an Association with several of the Nobility , that were Kindred of the Lords murthered at Vpsal , they resolved to dethrone King Erick . The better to execute their intentions , they had by the intercession of the King of Poland procured a Truce with Denmark , and having gathered what Forces and Mony they could among ●●eir Friends , and brought over some German Forces , that were in King Erick's service to their side , as also engaged Charles , King Erick's Brother , to join in the Confederacy , they seised upon the Castles of Stockeburgh , Lackoe and Wadstena , in the last of which they found a great Treasure . Then they published their Reasons for taking up Arms against the King and his evil Counsellours , and marched directly with their Forces towards Stockholm , near which place having fixed their Tents , they attacked the City on the side of the Brunckehill ; King Erick on the other side defended himself valiantly for a while , and by frequent Sallies did great mischief , and being mistrustful of the Citizens of Stockholm , he sent a Messenger into Denmark , to crave assistance from King Frederick ; but this Messenger having been taken and killed by the way the Senate of that City , who despaired to hold out much longer against the Dukes Forces , and also were favourers of their party , would have persuaded the King to a surrendry ; which proposition having been rejected by the King , they whilst the King was at Church opened the Gates to his Enemies , so that he narrowly escaped into the Castle . The Dukes Forces laid then close Siege to the Castle , so that King Erick , having first received Hostages , was forced to come out , and after having resigned the Crown to surrender himself a Prisoner to his Brother Duke Charles . The Estates then assembled at Stockholm having also jointly renounced their Obedience to him , he was made a close Prisoner , and committed to the care of some of the Friends of the murthered Lords , who used him most barbarously .

§ 11. John III. After the Deposition of King Erick , John , was by the Estates then assembled at Stockholm proclaimed King of Sweden , 1568. who having caused some of those that had been instrumental in the Murther of the Lords at Vpsal , to be Executed , sent his Ambassadour to Roeshild to treat with the King of Denmark either concerning a Peace or at least the prolongation of the Truce ; But these Ambassadours having exceeded their Commission , and agreed to such articles as were very prejudicial to Sweden the whole Transaction was declared void at the next Dyer , and King John sent other Ambassadours to desire more moderate propositions of Peace from the King of Denmark . And to give some sort of satisfaction to his Brother Charles , unto whom he had formerly promised a share in the Government , he put him in the Possession of Sudermannia , Nericke and Wermeland , which Provinces were granted him before pursuant to his Father's Testament . Then he was Crowned at Vpsal , and having sent back the Russian Ambassadours , he sent also some of his own into Moscovy to prolong the Truce betwixt them , but no sooner were they arrived there , but the Moscovites took them into custody , and perceiving that the Liflanders would in no ways submit themselves under their Yoak , they found out this expedient to put Magnus Duke of Holstein into the Possession of that Country , with the Title of an Hereditary King , paying only some small acknowlegement to the Grand Duke of Moscovy . This Proposition having been approved of by the King of Denmark Duke of Holstein , and all the Liflanders in general who were very willing to live under the jurisdiction of a German Prince . The Moscovites to put their design in execution advanced with a great Army , which obliged King John to make Peace with the Danes , at Stetin , upon very disadvantageous terms . But whilst the Moscovites had employed all their Forces in Livonia and Finland , the Tartars being set on by the Poles , fell into Moscovy , and having taken and burnt the City of Moscovy , cut above thirty thousand of the Inhabitants to pieces . This misfortune proved a main obstacle to their design upon Livonia , 1571. yet having made a Truce with the Tartars and Poles for some years they again entred Livonia with 80000 Men , and committed most inhuman barbarities , which the Swedes , who were much inferiour in number , could not prevent at that time . But a Swedish party of 600 Horse and 100 Foot , War with the Moscovites . that were faln in with the Moscovites , having routed 16000 Moscovites , killing 7000 of them upon the spot , the Czar of Moscovy was so dismayed that he of his own accord offered a Treaty of Peace to be set on Foot at Newgarten , which place being disliked by King John , the War began a fresh , which was carried on but with very indifferent success on the Swedish side , they having been repulsed before Wefenbergh and Telsburgh . There happened also another misfortune in the Swedish Camp , which proved not a little prejudicial to their Affairs ; for the German Horse and Scotish Foot that were in their Service came to handy blows , upon some distaste taken against one another , wherein 1500 Scotish Foot were all cut to pieces by the Germans , except 80 that escaped their fury , and the Russians not long after surprised the Swedes and Germans , that were drunk in their Camp ( and killed a great many of them upon the spot ; and because the Swedes were also not idle on their side , but made frequent inrodes into the Russian Territories , a Truce was concluded betwixt them for two years . Most of the Swedes are of opinion that King John might have prosecuted this War , with more vigour if he had not been more intent upon a Religious design , than upon warlike preparations .

The business proceeded thus : King John , though he was Educated a Protestant , yet having been very conversant with a great many learned Roman Catholicks , and influenced by his Queen , had resolved to restore by degrees the Roman Catholic Religion , under pretence of making a Reformation in the lately introduced Protestant Religion . To effect this , he intended to follow the footsteps of Georgius Cassander , that was employed by the Emperours Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. to unite and compose the Religious differences in Germany , and having called in some Jesuits disguised in Laymens Habits to be assisting to his Secretary Mr. Pieter Fretenius , who was to be the chief manager of the business , he at the Convocation of some of the Bishops and Clergy at Stockholm proposed to them a new form of a Liturgy , wherein a great many of the Popish Ceremonies were to be used in the Administration of the Sacraments , and Consecration of Bishops and Priests , as also the Mass was again introduced ; which new Liturgy he got subscribed by the new Consecrated Bishops and some of the inferiour Clergy , and was called the Liturgy of the Swedish Church , conform to the Catholick and Orthodox Church . This Liturgy having been published under the new Archbishop's name in the Swedish and Latin Tongues , the Mass and other Roman Catholick Hymns were again sung in the Swedish Churches ( except in the Territories belonging to Duke Charles the King's Brother ) and the Celibacy of Priests and other Popish Doctrines mightily extolled in the Pulpits by these disguised Roman Catholicks . The next thing to be done was to try whether he could bring over his Brother Charles to his party whom he sollicited by his Delegates to introduce the Liturgy into his Territories , who having made answer that it was , ( according to their Father's Testament ) neither in his , nor in the King's power to make any Innovation in Religion , this proved the subject of a great misunderstanding betwixt them . Next the King had his recourse to the Pope , who also having disapproved his undertaking , he demanded from the Clergy at Stockholm to give their approbation of the said Liturgy , but these answered that thereby a door was opened for the Roman Catholick Religion to be re-established in Sweden , and having made their Appeal to a General Synod of that Clergy in the Kingdom , a Convocation of the Clergy of the Kingdom ( except those in the Duke's Territories ) was held by the King's Authority , 1577. where the King's party prevailed , New Liturgy introduced . so , that the Liturgy was confirmed not only by the said Clergy , but also by the Temporal Estates , who declared all such Traitors as should for the future oppose the same . The King having gained this point banished and imprisoned some of those , that would not conform to the said Liturgy , notwithstanding which a great many of the Clergy that were professed Enemies of the said Liturgy , and upheld by Duke Charles did not only boldly discover the deceitful snares of the adverse party , but also sent to the German Universities of Wittembergh , Leipzick , Helmstad , Francfut and others , where their Zeal for the Augsburg Confession was approved , and the said Liturgy condemned as dangerous to the Protestant Religion . Hitherto King Erick had suffered a very hard imprisonment during the space of nine years , but he having in the mean while by several ways endeavoured his delivery , and King John now fearing , that perhaps these Intestine Divisions might furnish him with an opportunity to make his escape , he sent his Secretary to give him his last Dose , which he did accordingly , having poisoned him in a Pease Soop . The King being rid of this danger began now to act more barefaced than before ; for now the Invocation of Saints was publickly taught in the Pulpits , those that contradicted it were imprisoned , a new University of Papists was to be erected at Stockholm , he sent his Ambassadour to reside at Rome , and the Pope had his Nuncio at Stockholm , and to compleat the matter , a great many young Scholars were sent to the Jesuits abroad , to be duely instructed in their Principles . In the mean while the War betwixt the Swedes and Moscovites was carried on without any remarkable advantage on either side , till it was agreed betwixt the two Kings of Poland and Sweden , that each of them should act separately against the Moscovites , and what either of them could gain by his Sword , should remain in his possession . Then it was that Stephen King of Poland having attacked the Moscovites vigorously on his side , the Swedes also under the Command of Pontus de la Gordie took from the Moscovites the strong Forthress of Kekholm , the Castle of Padis , Wesenburgh , Telsburgh , Narva , ( where 7000 Moscovites were killed ) Jawmagrod and other places of note , which raised such a jealousie in the Poles that they not only made a separate Peach with the Moscovites , 1582. but also demanded several of those places , taken from the Moscovites by the Swedes , for their share , which put a great stop to the Swedish progresses , and occasioned a Truce of two years ( which was afterwards prolonged for four years longer ) betwixt them and the Moscovites . Whilst these things were transacting the misunderstanding betwixt the King and his Brother Charles could not be removed , notwithstanding that the Duke had shown his inclination of having these Differences composed , but the King having called together a Dyet at Wadstena , sent a summons to the Duke to appear there in person . The Duke on the other hand , who did not altogether trust the King , having assembled some Forces in his Territories , did not appear at the said Dyet , but lodged himself in some of the adjacent Villages , were at last by the mediation of some of the Senators , the Brothers were reconciled , the Duke having begged the King's pardon , 1587. and referred the Differences concerning the Liturgy to the decision of his Clergy , who at an Assembly held at Strengness rejected the aforesaid Liturgy . In the mean while died Stephen King of Poland , and his Widow Ar●●a being Aunt of Prince Sigismund the Son of King John , she prevailed with some of the great Men in Poland to make him their King , which was done accordingly , tho' not without great difficulty on the Swedish side , who could not for a great while agree to the several Propositions made to them by the Poles , and King Sigismund himself seemed soon after to repent of it . As soon as Sigismund had left Sweden , his Father King John began to renew his Care for establishing the new Liturgy in the Duke's Territories ; but the Clergy there trusting upon the Duke's Authority and Protection , remaining stedfast in their Opinion ; the King at last being tired out by their constancy , sent for his Brother Charles to Stockholm , where a hearty reconciliation being made betwixt them , Charles was so dear to him ever after , that he did nothing without his Advice or Consent , which Friendship continued betwixt the two Brothers till a little before the King's death , when Charles having married Cloristina the Daughter of Adolph Duke of Holstein , the former jealousy was renewed in some measure in the King , which soon ceased by his death , 1592. which happened a few Months after at Stockholm .

§ 12. After King John's death had been kept secret for two days , the same having been notified to Duke Charles , he forthwith came to Stockholm , and having sent a Messenger to King Sigismund in Poland , Sigismund . he in the mean while took upon him the Administration of the Government with the Consent of the Senate , which was confirmed to him by King Sigismund for that time . Soon after , he called together the Swedish and Gothick Clergy at Vpsat ( the Finns refusing to appear ) where the Augsburgh Confession was confirmed , and the Liturgy , as also Popish Ceremonies newly introduced quite abolished . This Decree having been approved of by the rest of the Estates , they also made another , wherein was declared , That no body should appeal out of Sweden to the King in Poland , and that the King should subscribe these Decrees before his Coronation . This proved the subject of great broils afterwards , for the King having understood what had passed at Vpsal , he declared , that he being a hereditary Prince in Sweden , would not oblige himself to any thing before his Coronation , and as to the Decrees made at Vpsal , he declared them void , which the Estates looked upon as an ill Omen for the Protestant Religion in Sweden . Their jealousie was also not a little augmented when they saw King Sigismund come into Sweden accompanied by the Pope's Nuncio , by whose advice the King demanded a Church for the Roman Catholicks in each City , that the new Archbishop should be deposed , and that he would be Crowned by the Pope's Nuncio which obliged the Estates to send their Deputies to Duke Charles , to desire him to interpose his Authority with the King . Charles therefore having in conjunction with the Estates , in vain endeavoured to perswade the King to a compliance with the Estates , entred into an Association with them for the defence of the Protestant Religion , and mustered his Troops near Vpsal . The King perceiving them to be in earnest , thought it his best way not to let things run to extremity , but having consented to most of their Propositions , which he surrendred to them the same morning when he was to be crowned , the Coronation was performed by the Bishop of Strengness . But no sooner was he returned to Stockholm , 1594. but he took a resolution quite contrary to his Promise , with an intention to obtain by force what he could not get by fair means . Wherefore having sent for some Forces out of Poland , he hoped to terrifie the Estates into a compliance at the next Dyet , but these being backed by Duke Charles , and having raised the Delekerls , remained stedfast in their Resolution . The King seeing himself disappointed again in his Design , resolved upon the advice of the Poles , to leave the Kingdom and the Government in an unsettled Condition , hoping thereby to oblige them to be more pliable for the future . But as soon as the Senators understood that he was sailed towards Dantzick , they in conjunction with Duke Charles , took upon themselves the administration of the Government , deposed the King's Governour of Stockholm ( he being a Papi●t ) and forbid the exercise of the Romish Religion . And soon after , a Peace having been concluded with the Muscovites , a Dyet was held at Sudercoping , where after the Estates had justified their proceeding in a Letter to the King , the Augsburgh Confession was again confirmed , the Popish Religion abolished , and all Swedes that adhered to the same , declared incapable of any Employments in the Kingdom , and several other Decrees were made against the Papists , and for the maintaining of the Privileges of the Subjects . Then they constituted Duke Charles Regent of the Kingdom to govern the same with Advice of the Senate , and the whole Transaction was published in the Latin , Swedish and German Tongues . This having occasioned a general flight among the Roman Catholicks out of Sweden ; King Sigismund was so dissatisfied thereat , that he quickly sent some Commissioners out of Poland to disswade the Duke from these proceedings , but also when this proved ineffectual by his Letter to the Estates he committed the whole management of Affairs to the Senate , excluding the Duke from the Regency . In the mean while some Senators either to curry favour with the King , or upon some distaste taken against Duke Charles , had shewn themselves great Favourers of the King , and declined to appear at the Dyet , which was appointed to be held under the Duke's Authority at Arboga . Notwithstanding which , the few Senators and the Estates there present did again confirm the Decrees lately made at Vpsal and Sudercoping , declaring Duke Carles sole Regent of Sweden . But Niclaco Flemming the King's General , being in Arms , and having lately killed a great number of the Boors , the Duke also thought it not fit to fit still , but having gathered what Troops he could , possessed himself first of Gothland , and not long after of the whole Kingdom of Sweden , the King's Governours and those of the Senators , that had not appeared at the last Dyet held at Arboga , flying in great numbers to the King in Poland . King Sigismund then perceiving that his presence was absolutely necessary in Sweden , resolved to go thither in Person with 6000 Men , which the Duke having been advertised of , 1598. called together the Estates of the Gothick Kingdom at Wadstena , and having made known to them the King's intention , it was unanimously resolved to meet the King with an Army near Calmar . But the West-Goths and Smalanders having taken up Arms for the King , and the Finns equipped some Ships for this Service , the former were beat back by the Boors , headed by two Professors of Vpsal , and whilest Duke Charles was sailed with his . Fleet to reduce the latter , which he did with good Success , the King without any opposition arrived at Calmar . Several Treaties were then set on foot to endeavour the settlement of the Kingdom , and to reconcile Matters betwixt the King and Duke , which proving ineffectual , both Parties had recourse to Arms. The first encounter happened near Stegeburgh , where the Duke's Forces being surrounded , were quickly put to the rout , but laying down their Arms , obtained Pardon from the King ; but the Duke soon made amends for this Misfortune , at Stangbroo , where having surprised part of the King's Army , he killed 2000 of them upon the spot , with the loss of 40 Men on his side . This Defeat occasioned an agreement betwixt the King and Duke upon certain Articles , of which the Estates were to be Guarrantees , and the King promised to come forthwith to Stockholm to settle the Affairs of the Kingdom , whither he would needs go by Sea , tho' it was in October , but in lieu of sailing to Stockholm , directed his Course from Calmar ( where he was droven in by contrary Winds ) to Dan●zick . The Duke being surprised at this unexpected departure , called together the Estates of the Kingdom , who having once more constituted him Regent of Sweden at their second meeting at Stockholm , 1599. renounced their Obedience to King Sigismund , offering at the same time the Crown to his Son Vladislaus , in case he would come within a twelve Months time into Sweden , and be educated in the Lutheran Religion , but in case of failure he and his heirs to be excluded from the Crown . Duke Charles thereupon marched against the Finns , whom he quickly forced to Obedience , and having made an Alliance with the Russians , 1600. convened the Estates of the Kingdom in the next following year at Sincoping , where some of the Lords that were here , having before fled into Poland , Sigismund deposed . were condemned of High Treason and executed accordingly , and not only King Sigismund declared incapable of the Crown , but also his Son Vladislaus ( because he had not appeared within the limited time ) excluded from the Succession . About the same time the Duke being certified that the Eastlanders . and especially those of Reval were inclined to his side , he marched thither with a great Army , and being received very joyfully by the Inhabitants of Reval , the Polish Governours left the rest of the places of Esthland voluntarily to the disposition of Charles . The same fortune artended him at first in Livonia , where he took several places of note without much opposition , but was forced to raise the Siege of Riga upon the approach of the Poles , who retook Kakenhausen and some other places thereabouts . Charles having in the mean time got notice how the Poles had set up the false Demetrius , and assisted him against the Muscovites , under pretence of being afraid of the designs of the Poles against Sweden , desired to resign . But these having first offered the Crown to John King Sigismund's half Brother , who refused to accept of the same , they bestowed it upon Charles , who being the only Son left of King Gustave , and by his Valour and Prudence having deserved so well of the Kingdom , the Crown was confirmed to his Heirs even to the Females . 1604. No sooner was Charles declared King , Charles IX . but he undertook an Expedition into Livonia , where he received a signal overthrow from the Poles , which might have proved of very ill consequence to Sweden , if King Sigismund had not been prevented by the intestine Commotions of the Poles to pursue his Victory . The Russians also had slain the false Demetrius , and having made one Suski their Grand Duke , craved Assistance from King Charles , who sent some Thousand Auxilaries under the Command of James de la Gardie , with whose Assistance they were very successful against the Poles . But in Lifland the Poles got the better of the Swedes in several encounters , and the Danes seeing the Swedes engaged on all sides , Warbetwixt the Swedes and Poles in Livonia . began to make great preparations against them . The Muscovites also had delivered their Grand Duke Suski up to the Poles , and offered that Crown to Vladislaus the Son of Sigismund , so that the Swedish Affairs looked with an ill face at that time , if Prince Gustave Adolph , King Charles's Son by his extraordinary Valour had not upheld their drooping Courage . For whilst the Danes wee busy about Calmar , he with 1500 Horse , not only surprised their chief Magazin in Blekinyen , which is now called Christianstad , but also took from them the Isle of Oeland and the Castle of Borkholm ; and whilst he was busy in putting his Forces into Winter-Quarters his Father King Charles died at Nycoping in the 61 year of his age . 1611.

§ 13. Gustavus Adolphus . Gustavus Adolphus being at the time of his Father's Death , yet under age , was under the Tuition of his Mother Christina , Duke John and some of the Swedish Senators . But the Swedes being at that time embroiled in the Polish and Russian Affairs , and the Danes pressing hard upon them , it was concluded at the Dyet at Nycoping , that King Gustave Adolph , notwithstanding he was not 18 years of age , should take upon himself the administration of Affairs . The King immediately applied all his Care to the Danish War , which was carried on but with indifferent Success on the Swedish side especially by Sea , where the Danes played the Masters , the Swedish Fleet being but in a very ill condition ; and the Danes having taken besides Calmar , also Risbyfort and Elffesburgh , two considerable places in Sweden . King Gustave finding this War very grievous to the Kingdom , and the Muscovites having about the same time declared themselves very favourably in behalf of his Brother Charles Philip , ( unto whom they offered that Crown ) a Peace was concluded with the Danes , the Swedes being obliged to pay them a Million of Crowns for these three places above-mentioned . In the mean while James de la Gardie had so well managed his Affairs in Muscovy , 1613. that the Chiefest among them desired King Gustave Adolph , and his Brother Charles Philip to come into Muscovy , but King Gustave Adolph who had more mind to unite that Crown with Sweden than to leave it to his Brother , was not only very slow in his Resolution , but also at last in his Answer to the Muscovites only spoke of his own coming thither , without mentioning his Brother , which having been interpreted by the Muscovites as if he intended to make their Country a Province of Sweden , they made one Michael Foedorowitz Romano their Grand Duke , and when Prince Charles Philip afterwards came into Muscovy , some of them for a while adhered to him , but the new Grand Duke having the stronger Party , the rest also at last left the Swedish side , who vigorously attacked and beat the Muscovites in several Engagements , and took from them some of their Frontier places , Peace with the Muscovites . till at last a Peace was concluded betwixt both Partys at Stolbova , by the mediation of the English , by vertue of which , 1617. the Swedes got Kerholm and Ingermanland .

In the mean while a Truce had been concluded with Poland for two years , but the same being near exspiring , King Gustave Adolph resolved to pursue the War against the Poles with more vigour than before . The better to put this Design in execution , he after his Coronation had been performed at Vpsal with an universal Joy of the People , 1617. paid to Christian King of Denmark the residue of the sum due to him by vertue of the last Treaty of Peace ; and having married Mary Eleonora the Daughter of John Sigismund Elector of Brandenburgh , 1620. he attacked the City of Riga , which defended it self for six weeks bravely , but being reduced to the last extremity , surrendred it self upon very honourable Terms . From hence he sailed towards Dantzick , to carry the War into Prussia , but King Sigismund being then at Dantzick , the Truce was renewed for two years longer . During the time of the Truce a Peace was proposed betwixt these two Crowns , which the Polish Estates were very desirous of , notwithstanding which , King Sigismund persisted in his former Resolution of pursuing the War . King Gustave therefore again entred Livonia with a good Army , where having defeated 3000 Lithuanians , who under the Command of Stanislaus Sariecha would have disputed his Passage , Kakenhausen , Dorpt , and other places of less note , surrendred themselves to the King . From hence he advanced into Lithuania , and took Birsew , and tho' the Poles had nothing left in Livonia , but only Duneburgh , and the Lithuanians were again defeated by the Swedes near Walsow in Sem-Gallia ; King Sigismund persisted in his Resolution of carrying on the War , being encouraged by the Emperour , who then was very successful in Germany . King Gustave then resolving to give the Poles a home-stroke , 1626. sailed with a Fleet of 80 Ships and 26000 Landmen towards the Pillaw , where by Order of the Elector of Brandenburgh , having been received without opposition , he landed his Men , and without any resistance took Brandenburgh and Frauenburgh . The next was Elbingen , where the Citizens having made some shew of resistance , the Senate surrendred the City without making as much as a Capitulation . The same good Fortune attended him before Marienburgh , The War carried on against the Poles in Prussia . Meve , Dirshaw , Stum , Christburgh and other places in Prussia , which all fell into his hands , before the Poles had notice of his arrival . Soon after the Poles sent 8000 Horse and 3000 Foot into Prussia , who had formed a design to surprise Marienburgh , but were repulsed with the loss of 4000 Men , and were also forced to raise the Siege of Meve . And Stanislaus Konierpol ki with his Podolians also besieged Dirshaw in vam , but retook Pautske from the Swedes , and dispersed some Germen Troops that were listed in Germany for the Service of King Gustave . In the next Spring the Swedish King having received new Supplies out of Sweden , 1627. intended to attack Dantzick , but having received a shot in the Belly before one of their out-works , he desisted for that time , but soon after made himself Master of the said Fort , having first beaten the Poles that came to its relief , who nevertheless , in the mean while had forced Meve to a surrendry . Soon after , both Armies encamped near Dirshaw , where King Gustave having drawn out his Forces in Battel array , the Poles did the like , having a boggy Ground before them , which the King did not think fit to pass with his Army ; but when the Poles began to draw off again into their Camp , the King falling into the Rear , killed them a great number of Men. But some days after , attacking them in their Camp , he received a shot in his left Shoulder with a Musquet Bullet , which his Forces being dismayed at , they returned without any further Action into their Camp . Towards the latter end of the year , a new Treaty having been set on foot betwixt the two Kings , the Treaty was so far advanced , that King Sigismund had resolved to sign it the next day , if the Austrians ( who did promise to send 24 Men of War and 12000 Men to his assistance ) had not prevented it . After the Treaty was broke off , King Gustave , before his Army went into Winter-quarters , took several places from the Poles , and at the beginning of the year next following , attacked a Fort near Dantzick , but was repulsed with loss . Soon after he had a smart Engagement with the Poles , wherein 3000 of them were killed upon the spot , the Swedes having taken four pieces of Cannon , and fourteen Standards , tho' not without great blood-shed on their side . Then the King advanced nearer unto Dantzick , having sent eight Men of War to block up that Harbour , but the Dantzickers with ten Men of War having attacked the Swedish Squadron , they killed the Swedish Admiral Nils Sternshield , took his Ship , forced their Vice-Admiral to blow up his own Ship , and put the rest to flight , tho' the Dantzickers also lost their Admiral and 400 Men in this Engagement . King Gustave then having detached 1000 foot Souldiers , who passed the Veixel in Boats , they surprised Niewburgh , which being a Magazin of the Poles , they took most of their Baggage and 600000 Crowns in Money . 1629. But in the year next following , he gave them more work ; for Herman Wrangel raised the Blockade of Brodnitz where 3000 Poles were killed , 1000 taken Prisoners , with five Pieces of Cannon and 2000 Waggons with Provision . The Poles being frightened at this Defeat , were very desirous then to receive the Imperial Forces which were sent to their Assistance under the command of Arnheim , who with 5000 Foot and 2000 Horse , joined Koniccpoliski , the Polish General near Graudentz . King Gustave on the other hand encamped with an Army of 5000 Horse and 8000 Foot near Quidzin ; and tho' the Swedes were much inferiour in number , yet did they not refuse the Combate ; and both Armies soon after having met near Stum , there happened a brisk Engagement betwixt them , wherein the Swed●sh Horse were first repulsed , with the loss of five Standards , but the King coming up in Person with more Forces , soon forced the Poles to retreat , who would have passed over a Bridge which they were laying over the River of Nogat . But King Gustave endavouring to cut off their retreat that way , the Fight was renewed on both sides with great fury , so that the King venturing himself too far , was taken hold of by his Shoulder-belt , which he slipping over his head , got free of them , leaving his Hat and Belt behind him . But immediately after , another catching hold of his Arm. would have carried him off , if one Erick Soop had not shot the Polander , and delivered the King . In this Action the Swedes got seventeen Colours and five Standards , the Imperial Forces having received the greatest damage . Not long after , there happened another Engagement about the same Bridge , where the Poles were again repulsed , and in the attack of Stum , they lost 4000 Men of their best Forces . The Poles having imputed these Losses chiefly to Arnheim the Imperial General ( who being a Vassal of the Elector of Brandenburgh , was suspected by them to hold a correspondence with the said Prince ) and being grown quite weary of the Imperial Forces , being also pestered with Famine and the Plague , by the mediation of France , England , Brandenburgh and Holland , a Truce was concluded for six years , by vertue of which , King Gustave was to restore to Poland , Brodnitz Wormdit , Melsack , Stum and Dirshaw , Marienburgh was committed to the custudy of the Elector of Brandenburgh , King Gustave kept the Castle and Harbour of Pillaw and Mem●l , Truce with Poland . as also Elbingen and Braunsbergh , besides all what he was possessed of in Livonia , so that King Gustave Adolph had ended both the Russian and Polish War to his eternal Honour and the great Advantage of his Kingdom .

§ 14. German War . But he was not long at rest before Germany was the Scene where he acquired everlasting Glory to his Nation , and performed some of the greatest Actions that were ever seen in Europe . As soon as the Protestants in Germany began to be jealous of the Roman Catholicks sinister Intentions against them , they were then for bringing King Gustave over to their Alliance ; but he being at that time entangled in the Polish Affairs , was not at leisure to engage himself with them . 1626. But Christian IV. King of Denmark who was ambitious of that Honour , having in the mean while received a great Defeat from the Imperialists , who since that had made themselves Masters of the Lower Saxony , and got footing on the Baltick , King Gustave fearing the consequence of it , pressed the harder upon the Poles to oblige them to a Peace or Truce ; 1623. and having called together the Estates of Sweden , he represented to them the danger which threatened Sweden from the Imperialists , who had not only got footing on the Baltick , but also made themselves Masters of a part of Denmark ; whereupon it having been resolved by the Estates , that it was not advisable to stay till the Enemy should attack them at home , but to meet him abroad and to keep him from getting footing on the Borders of the Baltick , the King only waited an opportunity to put this Design in execution , which presented it self in the same year . For Albert Wallenstein , Duke of Friedland , the Imperial General , having laid a Design against the City of Strahlsund , the King who was then in Prussia , offered his Assistance to that City , and having sent them voluntarily some Ammunition , and exhorted them to a vigorous Defence ; the Citizens accepted of the King's offer , making an Alliance with him for the Defence of their City and Harbour , and to maintain their Commerce in the Baltick . Pursuant to this Treaty , the King sent some of his Forces to their assistance , who were very instrumental in defending that City against the Imperialists , but he did not think fit to attempt any thing further at that time , because Wallenstein and Tilly were with two considerable Armies not far off . But as soon as the ●ol●sh War was ended , he resolved not to make any further delay . Having therefore in vain proffered his mediation for the procuring of a Peace in Germany , and represented again to the Estates of Sweden the necessity of meeting the Imperialists with an Army abroad , he with all expedition prepared himself for the next Campagne , 1630. and having sent Alexander Lesley with some Troops before , to drive the Imperialists out of the Isle of Rugen ( which he effected ) and settled his Affairs at home , he embarked with 92 Companies of Foot , and 16 of Horse ( which were however considerably augmented afterwards by some Regiments raised in Prussia ) and landed the 24 of June at Vsedom . Charles Gustave lands with his Forces in Germany . Upon his arrival the Imperialists having left their Forts thereabouts and at Wollin , he re-embarked his Souldiers with a Train of Artillery in some small Vessels and directly took his course towards Stetin , and having obliged the Duke of Pomerania to receive him and his Forces into that City , he made a defensive Alliance with him . From hence he marched to Stargard , Anclam , Vckermund and Wolgast , all which places he took without much opposition . And whilest King Gustave acted with such Success against the Imperialists in Pomerania , Christian Withelm administrator of Magdeburgh ( who had been deposed by the Emperour ) had got into the possession again of the City and Territories of Magdeburgh , whither King Gustave sent D●cterick of Falekenbergh to be assisting to the said Administrator in settling his Affairs that were then in great confusion . In the mean while several Regiments of Liflanders and Finlanders were arrived under the Command of Gustave Horn , these having been joined by such Troops as were lately come out of Prussia , the King left his Camp near Stetin , he himself marching with his Army into Mecklenburgh . In his absence the Imperialists had endeavoured to force the Swedish Camp near Stetin , but were vigorously repulsed , and at his return he also beat them out of Greiffenhagen and Gartz , nay , even out of the furthermost parts of Pomerania , and the New Marck . The Archbishop of Bremen , Duke George of Lunenburgh , and William Landgrave of Hesse , then entred into an Alliance with the King , and the Protestant party in general being encouraged at the Success , began to consider of ways and means to rid themselves of the Roman Catholick yoke .

At the beginning of the next ensuing year , 1631. King Gustave at last concluded the so long projected Alliance with France , Alliance made with France . by vertue of which he was to receive a yearly Subsidy of 400000 Crowns from the French King . Having thus strengthned himself , he notwithstanding the Winter Season , took Lokenitz , Prentzlow , New Br●ndenburgh , Clempenow , Craptow and Leitz , without much opposition . Demmin also , where the Duke of Lavelli was in Garrison with two Regiments , was surrendred after a Siege of three Days , and Colberg surrendred after a Blockade of five Months . The Emperour in the mean while perceiving that his Generals were not able to cope with King Gustave Adolph , had given to Tilly the Bavarian General the supreme Command over his Forces , who being an antient experienced and renowned Captain marched directly to the relief of Demmin , but having received intelligence that the place was surrendred before , he fell with great fury upon Kniphausen who lay with two Regiments of Swedes at New Brandenburgh , which being a place of no defence , he forced after a brave resistance , killing most of the Common Souldiers . But perceiving that King Gustave being strongly entrenched , was not to be forced in his Camp , he directed his march upwards to Magdeburgh , in hopes to draw the King out of his advantageous Post . But King Gustave marched directly towards Franckfort upon the Oder , where the Earl of Shaumburgh lay with a small Army , notwithstanding which , he took the place by Storm after a Siege of three Days , slew 700 of the Enemies and took 800 , among whom were a great many Officers of note : From hence he sent a Detachment to Landsbergh , to endeavour to drive also the Imperialists from thence . About the same time a general meeting of the Protestant German Princes was held at Leipzick ▪ where a League was proposed to be made in opposition to the demanded res●itution of the Church-Lands . Thither King Gustave sent some of his Ministers to exhort them to a mutual Union against the Emperour , and to demand some assistance from them of Men and Money . But the Elector of Saxony was very backward in declaring himself positively , pretending several reasons , but in effect intended to make himself head of the Protestant League , and in the mean while to take this opportunity of putting the Protestants in a good posture , and to keep the ballance betwixt the Emperour and the Swedes . King Gustave therefore perceiving that the Protestants in Germany were so very cunning and over-cautious , thought it his best not to venture his Army at the discretion of others , wherefore tho' he was very willing to have relieved the City of Magdeburgh , which was reduced to extremity , yet did he not think it advisable to march thither before he had secured his retreat . To render therefore his design effectual , he marched with his Army strait to Berlin , and having obliged the Elector of Brandenburgh , partly by fair words , partly by threats , to put into his hands the Forts of Spandau and Custrin for the security of a retreat over the two Rivers of the Havel and Oder , he would have straitways marched to the relief of the City of Magdeburgh , if the Elector of Saxony would have joined him , but whilest the said Electors made a great many tergiversations , the said City was taken by Storm by General Tilly , The City of Magdeburgh taken by the Imperialists , 10 May. who miserably burnt the City , and killed most of the Inhabitants , there having been but 400 left of a great many thousands . After this Disaster , King Gustave having published his Reasons , why he could not timely enough relieve that City , and having cleared the whole Pomerania of the Imperialists , he divided his Army , and having sent part of his Forces to the assistance the Dukes of Mecklenburgh , he marched with the rest into Marck and encamped at Werben near the River Elbe , to observe Tilly , who having received Intelligence of the King's arrival near that River , was obliged to alter his march ( which he intended to have directed towards Saxony ) in hopes to force the King to a Battel . But the King surprised his Avaint-Guard near Wolmerstadt , where he totally ruin'd three Regiments of Horse . Notwithstanding which , Tilly approached near the King's Camp at Werben , but the King refusing of fight , and he not daring to attack him in his Camp , he was for want of Forrage , obliged to march back to his former Camp at Wolmerstadt . In the mean while the Dukes of Mecklenburgh had with the assistance of the Swedish Auxiliaries driven the Imperialists out of their Territories , except Domitz , Wismar and Rostock , which places they also kept block'd up . And about the same time James Marquis of Hamilton came with 6000 English and Scots into Pomerania , but stood the King in no great stead , most of them dying in the same year by several Diseases . But Tilly seeing that he could not attack the King near Werben , decamped from Wolmerstadt and marched to Eisleben , and from thence to Halli , from whence he marched with 40000 Men to Leipsick , which he took soon after . The Elector of Saxony being thus put to a nonplus , was then forced to send to King Gustave , and to desire him to join his Army which lay encamped near Torgawi , the King who had foreseen what would befal him , being already advanced near New Brandenburgh ; and tho' the King was very glad of this opportunity , yet because the Elector being now put to a nonplus , now desired what he had resused before , he proposed to him certain Conditions , which the Elector having readily granted , he passed the River Elbe near Wittenbergh with 13000 Foot and 9000 Horse , and joined the Elector near Dieben . Then a Council of War having been called ( where the Elector of Brandenburgh also was present ) the King , who did not exspect that the old cunning General would give them any opportunity to fight , was for acting very cautiously ; but the Elector of Saxony was not for protracting the War , telling them that if the rest refused he would fight alone : This opinion at last prevailed , the King then thought it most convenient to attack him immediately before he could be joined by the Generals Altringer and Tieffenbach , the first of which was already arrived near Erffurt , the second being on his march out of Silesia . Thereupon the command of the right Wing being left to the King , that of the left to the Electors , they marched towards the Enemy . Tilly had no sooner been informed of their approach , but he began to fortifie himself in his Camp near Leipzick . Battel near Leipzick . 7. Sept. But Papenheim and the rest of the Imperial Generals trusting too much upon the bravery of their Veteran Bands , and despising the new Levies of the Saxons and the Swedes that were tired out by long march would by all means fight the Enemy in the Plains near Braitenfeld , where Tilly lost the fruits of his former Victories . He had possessed himself of all the rising Grounds where he had planted his Cannon , and had also the advantage of the Wind ; but King Gustave who had put some Battalions of Foot among the Squadrons of Horse , by wheeling about , got the advantage of the Wind from him , and having obliged the Imperialists to open their left Wing , John Banner fell in among them and brought them into confusion . But the greatest force of the Imperialists fell upon the Saxons , whose Infantry and some of the Militia Horse were put to flight , which obliged the King to fall with his Wing upon the Enemy's Horse that were in pursuit of the Saxons , whom he quickly also forced to fly . But the Imperial Infantry still held out , till Gustave's Horse with some Squadrons of the right Wing fell into their Flank ; and the King about the same time having taken all the Enemy's Artillery , they were put to an entire rout on all sides , leaving 7600 Men dead upon the spot , besides what was killed in the pursuit , 5000 Prisoners took Service under the King . Tilly himself who refused Quarter , was likely to have been killed by a Captain of Horse , if Rodulf Maximiliun Duke of Saxon-Lauenburgh had not delivered him by shooting the Captain thro' the head . The Swedes took above 100 Standards and Colours , but lost 2000 Men most of them Horse ; the Saxons lost 3000 , who quickly retook Leipzick , whilest the King marched towards Merseburgh , where he out to pieces 1000 of the Enemies , and took 500 Prisoners . Then it was resolved at a Council of War held at Halle , not to follow Tilly , who was retired towards the River of Weser , but to carry their victorious Arms into the Emperour's hereditary , and other Roman Catholick Countries thereabouts . After some dispute it was agreed that the King should march towards Franconia , whilest the Elector of Saxony entred the hereditary Countries of the Emperour . Pursuant to this agreement , the King marched towards Erffurt , ( where William Duke of Weimar was received without opposition ) and from thence into Franconia , where he took Koningshofen and Sweinfurt without any opposition , and the Castle of Wurtzburgh after some resistance . In the mean while Tilly the Imperial General having been reinforced by several Troops that were before dispersed in Germany , was come to the relief of Wurtzburgh , but coming too late , marched toward the River of the Tauber to cover the Bavarian and the Emperour 's hereditary Countries on that side , but in his march the Swedes falling into his Rear , cut off four entire Regiments . The King having then made an Alliance with the Marquis of Anspach marched towards the Rhine , surprised Hanaw , but Franckfort on the River of Mayn surrendred voluntarily , and having possessed himself of the whole Country of Ringau , directed his march into the Palatinate , which was then in the possession of the Spaniards . Soon after entring the Berghstrate he took Gersheim , and passed the Rhine near Stockstadt , having defeated the Spaniards that would have disputed his Passage , and at Oppenheim he cut 500 Spaniards in pieces , but the Garrison of Mayence surrendred upon Articles , and Landaw , Spiers , Weissenburgh and Mainheim , fell soon after into the King's hands . Rostock also and Wismar having in the mean while been surredred , the Baltick Sea-Coast was cleared from the Imperialists . And the Members of the Circle of the Lower Saxony at an Assembly held at Hamburgh , had resolved to levy 6000 Foot and 500 Horse for the defence of that Circle . The Elector of Saxony in the mean while having refused the offers made to him by the Spanish Ambassadour , had sent his Army under the command of Lieutenant General Arnheim into Bohemia , where among other places they had taken the City of Prague ; but having conceived a jealousy against the King ( whom he suspected to aim at the Imperial Crown ) he could not be prevailed upon to march further into Moravia and Austria . And the Imperial Court seeing that Tilly was no more able to cope with the King , resolved to give the supreme Command of the Imperial Forces to Wallenstein , who being an old experienced Souldier , and in great Authority among the Souldiers , had besides this gathered such riches that he was able to raise an Army at his own charge . He having been at last prevailed upon to take upon him the supreme Command , raised an Army of 40000 Men against the next Spring . 1637. But whilest these Preparations were making at Vienna , the King's Forces , notwithstanding the Winter Season , having beaten the Spaniards upon the Moselle , had taken Creutznach , Braunfels Kobenhausen and Kirchbergh , and the King having left the supreme direction of Affairs on the Rhine to Axel Oxenstirn , he himself towards the Spring marched into Franconia . But Tilly at his approach , retired on the other side the Danube , the King possessed himself of all the places along that River as far as Vlm , from whence he marched towards the River of Lech , where Tilly had entrenched himself in a Forest on the other side of that River . Here it was that General Tilly was wounded by a Canon Bullet , of which he died in a few days after at Ingolstadt . His Army being dismayed at the loss of their General left their advantageous Post , and the Swedes having cut 1000 of them in pieces in their retreat marched straightways into the Country of Bavaria , where they took possession of Raio , and Niewburgh upon the Danube . Augsburgh surrendred without much resistance . But their design upon Ingolstadt and Ratisbonne miscarried , being repulsed at the first , where the King's Horse was shot under him , and Christopher the Marquis of Baden killed by his side , but the latter the Elector of Bavaria had secured by throwing some of his Forces into the place . The King therefore returning into Bavaria set that Country under Contribution , and the City of Municken opened its Gates to the King . In the mean while General Wallenstein , having left the Elector of Bavaria a while to shift for himself , had driven the Saxons out of Bohemia , by the treachery of their General Arnheim , who was an utter Enemy of King Gustave , and the Imperialists under Lieutenant General Pappenheim had made considerable progresses in the Circle of the Lower Saxony , Wallenstein also had taken a resolution to fall with all his Forces upon the King in the Country of Bavaria . Pursuant to this resolution , the Elector of Bavaria having left a sufficient Garrison at Ingolstadt and Ratisbonne , marched towards Egen to join Wallenstein , whom the King pursued in hopes to hinder their conjunction , but coming too late , he encamped near Numbergh , till he could be joined by his Forces that were dispersed in several parts of Germany . Wallenstein then made a shew as if he would turn his Arms against the Elector of Saxony , thereby to draw the King out of his advantageous Post near that City ; but the King remaining in his Post he marched towards him , spreading his Cavalry all round about , which occasioned a great scarcity of Forage in the King's Camp , but as for Provisions he was sufficiently supplyed withal from Numbergh . Whilst the King was reduced to these Straits he received a reinforcement of 15000 Foot , and 10000 Horse from several places , so that being now superiour in number he attacked Wallenstein in his Camp , who being strongly Entrenched repalsed the Swedes with the loss of 2000 Men. In the mean time the Imperial General Pappenheim had beat the Hessians near Volckmarsen , had forced the Duke of Lunenburgh to raise the Siege of Callenbergh , had beat General Baudist from before Paterborn and Hoxter , had relieved Wolffenbuttel , and taken Hildesheim , from whence he was marched into Thuringia , to join Wallenstein . On the other hand the Saxons were entred Silesia with an Army of 16000 Men , where meeting with no opposition , they might have carried all before them , if their General Arnheim had not been treacherous to King Gustave , whom he hated , and was for working a reconciliation betwixt the Emperour and the Elector of Saxony . The King therefore , not to lose any more time , having put a good Garrison into Numbergh , resolved to send part of his Army into Franconia , and with the main Body to return towards the Danube into Bavaria , where he had taken several places on the River of Lech . But whilst he was carrying on his victorious Arms among the Roman Catholicks , frequent Messengers were sent to him by the Elector of Saxony craving his assistance against Wallenstein , who was with all his Forces entred into Misnia . The King though he had great reason to be dissatisfied with the Elector , yet fearing he might be forced to make a separate Peace with the Emperour , if he did not come to his assistance ; he having left some Forces in Bavaria and Suabia , under the Command of Paltsgrave Christian of Berckenfeld , and commanded Gustave Horn to remain in Alsatia , where he forced Benfelden to surrender , ( as Franckenthal was about the same time forced to surrender by Famine ) himself marched with the Army towards Misnia . Being arrived at Nauenbu●gh he received information that the Enemies had raised the Siege of Werssenfels , and that they had detached Pappenheim with some Forces upon another design . Having therefore resolved not to stay for the Duke of Lunenburgh , who being already arrived at Wittenbergh , was to have joined him , but to fight the Enemy before he could be rejoined by Pappenheim . Pursuant to this resolution he marched to the great Plains near Lutzen , Battel near Lutzen . Nov. 6. where a most bloody Battel was fought betwixt them , in which the Swedish Infantry fell with such fury upon the Imperial Foot that they routed them , and made themselves Masters of their Cannon . But the Swedish Horse being stopt by a broad Ditch , ( that was cut cross the Plains for the conveniency of floating of Wood ) the King put himself at the Head of the Smaland Regiment of Horse , encouraging the rest by his example to follow him . Thus furiously advancing before the rest , and being only accompanyed by Francis Albucret Duke of Saxen Launenburgh , and two Grooms , he there lost his life . Concerning his death there are different opinions , but the most probable is , that he was shot by the said Duke of Lauenburgh , who was set on by the Imperialists that had their only hopes in the King's death . The Swedes were so far from being dismayed at the King's death , King Gustave Adolfe killed . that they fell with great fury again upon the Enemy , whom they routed on all sides . The Imperialists having been rejoined by Pappenheim would have rallied again , but Pappenheim having also been killed , they were routed a second time , leaving an entire Victory to the Swedes , which was nevertheless dearly purchased by the death of so great a King .

§ 15. Christina . The death of this great King caused great alterations in Europe , for , though the Imperialists had lost the Battel and a great many brave Officers , 1633. yet were they in no small hopes that the Swedish Affairs would now sink under their own weight , and therefore made great preparations against them the next Campagne . The Protestants in Germany were by his death divided into several Factions , not knowing whom they should choose for their Head , and the Swedes overwhelmed with troubles , his Daughter Christina being then but six years of Age. Nevertheless , having settled their Affairs at Home , and committed the Administration of the Kingdom to the five chief Officers of the State , the chief management of the Affairs in Germany was committed to the care of the Lord Chancellour Oxenstirn , who having been sent by the King's order into the higher Germany , received this sad News at Hanau . The Chancellour did not so much fear the Power of his Enemies as their constancy and unanimous Resolution , whereas the Protestants were divided in their Counsels and Opinions , and were not likely to follow his directions after the King's death , it being not probable that the Electors and Princes of the Empire would be commanded by a Foreign Nobleman ; nevertheless he thought it not advisable , by leaving their Conquests , to ruin at once the Protestant Cause and the Interest of Sweden , but rather to endeavour by a brave resistance to obtain an honorable Peace . Having therefore sent some Regiments back into Sweden , he divided his Army , and having sent 14000 Men under the Command of George Duke of Lunenburgh into the Lower Saxony and Westphalia , the last were ordered into Franconia , and some Forces were also detached towards Silesia . These Forces acted with good success agaist the Imperialists , especially in Westphalia , where the Duke of Lunenburgh took several places , defeated the Earl of Mansfeld near Rinteln and besieged the City of Hamelen . But in Silesia the Common Cause was not carried on with the same forwardness , by reason of the misunderstanding betwixt the Swedish and Saxon Generals , the latter of which keeping a secret Correspondency with Wallenstein , left the Swedes in the Lurch , who were at last miserably beaten by the said Wallenstein . But in all other places they had better success , where their Generals took several places of note , and the Duke of Lunenburgh had also retaken the strong City of Hamelen by accord , after having defeated 15000 Imperialists that were coming to its relief , whereof 2000 were killed upon the spot , and as many taken Prisoners . Thus the Swedish Army were every where flourishing but in Silesia , nevertheless the burthen of the War grew heavier upon them every day , most of their Confederates being grown weary of the War , and willing to be rid of the Swedes . Whilst they laboured under these difficulties , Wallenstein being faln in disgrace and killed by the Emperour's order , they hoped to reap some advantage by this Change , but the Emperour having made the King of Hungary ( his Son ) General of his Army , who having taken Ratisbonne , and being joined by the Spanish Forces that were marching towards the Netherlands besieged Nordlingen , where the Swedish Avantguard intending to possess themselves of a Hill near that City , were engaged with the Imperialists , 1634. which occasioned a Battel betwixt the two Armies , Aug. 27. and the Swedish Left Wing having been brought into disorder by the Polish , Battel of Nordlingen . Hungarian and Croatian Horse , was forced back upon their own Infantry , which also were brought iuto Confusion and totally routed , 6000 having been slain upon the spot , a great number taken Prisoners , among whom was Gustave Horn , and 130 Colours were lost , besides the whole Artillery and Baggage . After this Battel the whole Upper Germany being over-run by the Imperialists , and the Elector of Saxony having made a separate Peace with the Emperour , the Swedish Affairs seem'd to be reduced to a very ill condition , especially since the Elector of Brandenburgh also had sided with the Saxons , and the Truce with the Poles was near expired about the same time , which made the Swedes very desious of a Peace ; but the same not being to be obtained in Germany they were fain to prolong the Truce with the Poles for twenty six years , Truce prolonged with the Poles . and to restore to them their so dearly beloved Prussia , and to draw France into Germany to their assistance , to put them in the Possession of Philipsburgh . Thus having in a manner settled their Affairs , the War broke out betwixt them and the Elector of Saxony , who offered them a recompence of mony for the Archbishoprick of Magdeburgh , which the Swedes refusing to accept of , there happened a sharp Engagement betwixt them near Allenburgh upon the Elbe , where of 7000 Saxons , War betwixt the Swedes and Elector of Saxony . one half were killed , and the rest taken Prisoners . Notwithstanding this advantage the Swedes had no small obstacles to surmount , since the Emperour was in Possession of the whole Upper Germany , and had besides this set the Elector of Saxony upon their Back , which obliged the Swedes to take new Measures , and being now left by all their Confederates , they were at liberty at least to act more unanimously , though perhaps with less force , the effects of which appeared soon after ; for though the Elector of Saxony had the good fortune to retake Magdeburgh from the Swedes , yet they soon after revenged this loss near Perlebergh where they attacked the said Elector with a less number in his fortified Camp , and having routed his Army killed 5000 upon the spot , besides what were killed in the pursuit , 1100 being killed on the Swedish side , and 3000 wounded , and having soon after droven the Imperialists out of Hessia into Westphalia , and regained Erffurt , they were again in a fair way to get footing in High Germany . They had also in the next ensuing year several Encounters with the Imperialists and Saxons , 1637. which proved most to their advantage , Banner having defeated eight Saxon Regiments near Edlenburgh , and soon after 2000 more near Pegau , and when the Imperialists thought to have got him with his whole Army into their Clutches near Custrin , he got off with great dexterity , but could not prevent , but that the Imperialists took several places in Pomerania , as also near the Rivers of Havel and Elbe ; George Duke of Lunenburgh having also declared against the Swedes , who also began to be extremely jealous of Brandenburgh by reason of his pretension upon Pomerania , after the death of Bagislaus XIV . the last Duke of Pomerania , ( who dyed this year ) an Alliance was concluded betwixt them and France for three years .

The Swedes having been brought the year before somewhat in the straits , 1638. they now , Alliance with France . after having received fresh Recruits began to recover what they had lost the year before , Banner having driven Gallas the Imperial General back even into the Hereditary Countries of the Emperour . And Bernhard Duke of Weimar had the same success on the Rhine , where having besieged Rhinefelden , he fought twice with the Imperialists , that came to its relief , and having routed them in the second Engagement took Rhinefelden , Kuteln and Fryburgh in Brisgau . After this exploit having blocked up Brisack so closely that it was reduced to the utmost by Famine , the Imperialists endeavoured to relieve it with 12000 Men , which were so received by the said Duke that scarce 2500 escaped . And not long after the Duke of Loraine having attempted its relief with 3500 Men , the same were also cut in pieces , and the place surrendred to the Duke . The Imperialists having been thus routed both near the Rhine and in the Lower Saxony , the Duke and John Banner had both taken a resolution to carry the War into the Emperour's Hereditary Countries , and Banner marched straitways ( after several Defeats given to the Imperialists and Saxons ) into Bohemia , where he in all likelihood might have had great success if the untimely death of Duke Bernhard ( who was to join him ) had not broke his Measures . This Duke being sollicited by the French to surrender Brisack into their Hands , ( which he refused ) was Poisoned by them , and his Army with great promises and mony debauched to submit under the French Command . The Imperialists then growing too strong for Banner alone in Bohemia , he marched back into Misnia and Thuringia , and having been joined by the Duke of Longueville , who Commanded the Army of the lately deceased Duke of Weimar and by some Hessians and Lunenburghers near Erffurt ( which made up an Army of 21 Brigades and 2000 Horse ) he would fain have Fought the Imperialists , but these avoiding to come to a Battel the Campagne was most spent in marching up and down the Country . But at the beginning of the next ensuing year Banner had very near surprised the City of Ratisbonne , 1641. where the Emperour and the Estates of the Empire were then assembled , if the Ice which was by which was by a sudden Thaw loosned in the River , had not hindred them from laying a Bridge of Boats , which design having miscarried , Banner resolved to carry the War again into Moravia , Silesia , and Bohemia . But the Weimarian Forces under the Command of the French General having left him thereabouts , the Imperialists had so closely beset him , that there was no way left to retreat but through the Forest of Bohemia , which was done with all expedition , having left Colonel Slange , with three Regiments of Horse behind , who after a brave resistance were all made Prisoners of War , but saved the Swedish Army , which would else have been in great danger if they had not detained the Imperialists , the Swedish Army being arrived but half an hour before them at the Pass of Presswitz , where they stopt the Enemies march . Not long after dyed the famous Swedish General John Banner , May 10. whose death caused some dissatisfaction in the Army , notwithstanding which they beat the Imperialists near Wolffenbuttel at two several times , and Torstenson , ( who was made General ) being arrived in the Camp , directed his march into Silesia , where he toook Great Glogau with Sword in Hand , 1642. and a great many other places , the chiefest of which was Sweinitz , where he defeated the Imperialists , that came to its relief , under the Command of Francis Albert Duke of Saxon Lauenburgh , who was killed himself and 3000 Horse . Afterwards he besieged Brieg , but was forced to raise that Siege , the Imperialists being superiour in number , who also prevented him from marching into Bohemia . Wherefore having directed his March towards the Elbe , and passed that River at Torgaw , he straightways went to besiege the City of Leipzick . But the Imperialists under the Command of the Arch Duke , Battel fought near Leipzick . and General Piccolomini coming to its relief , a bloody Battel was fought in the same Plains near Breitenfeld , where King Gustave Adolf before had obtained a signal Victory against the Imperialists . In this Battel the Left Wing of the Imperialists having been brought into confusion , Oct. 23. the Left Wing of the Swedes underwent the same fate , but the Swedes Left Wing rallying again and falling in the Flank of the Imperialists Right Wing , they put them to the rout , 5000 being killed upon the spot , and 4500 taken Prisoners . The Swedes lost 2000 Men , and had a great many wounded . After the loss of this Battel Leipzick was soon forced to surrender , but Freybergh ( which was soon after besieged by Torstenson ) defended it self so well , that the Swedes , upon the approach of the Imperial General Piccolomini , were forced to raise the Siege with the loss of 1500 Men. And the Weirmarian Army under the Command of the French General Gebrian was for the most part ruined by the Bavarians .

In the mean while Torstenson had received Orders to March with his Army into Holstein , War with Denmark . the Swedes provoked by a great many injuries , 1644. having resolved to turn their Arms against Denmark ; which was executed with great secresie , so that the Swedes coming unexpectedly upon the Danes took the greatest part of Holstein , beat their Troops in Jutland and Shonen , and ruined their Fleet ; made themselves Masters of the whole Bishoprick of Bremen , and the Isle of Bernholm , which obliged the Danes to make a disadvantageous Peace with them at Bromsebtoo given to the Swedes Jempteland and Herndalen , Gothland and Oesel , besides other advantages . 1645. Torstenson having then made a Truce with the Elector of Saxony marched again into Bohemia , Peace with Denmark . where another Battel was fought near Janowitz betwixt the Imperialists and Swedes , wherein the first were routed with the loss of 8000 Men , one half of whom were killed the rest taken Prisoners . The Swedes had 2000 Men killed . The Swedes then marched through Bohemia into Moravia , and from thence into Austria , where having been joined by Ragozi they were in a fair way of making greater progresses , if Ragoz , who had received satisfaction from the Emperour , had not left the Swedish Army , and marched Home with his Forces . The French also under the Command of Turenne having been again routed by the Bavarians , Torstenson marched back into Bohemia , who having put his Forces into Winter Quarters near the River of Eger , and growing very crazy left the Supreme Command of the Army to Wrangel , who finding the Enemy too strong for him thereabouts , marched further back into Misnia , and from thence towards the Weser . But having not long after been joined by Turenne near Gieslen they attacked Augsburgh which being reinforced with 500 Men , they were forced to quit the Siege upon the approach of the Imperialists , who also retook several places in the Hereditary Countries of the Emperour . Not long after Wrangel also made a Truce with the Elector of Bavaria , which however lasted not long , the said Elector having upon the persuasion of the Emperour broke the same a few months after , and joined his Forces with the Imperialists . But Wrangel marching early out of his Winter Quarters , in conjunction with Turenne , 1643. pressed so hard upon the Bavarians that they were forced to retire to Saltzburgh , leaving a great part of the Country to the discretion of the Allies , where these burnt a great many Houses , because the Inhabitants refused to pay Contribution . About the same time Koningsmark had surprised the Suburbs of Prague , July 16. where he had got a prodigious Booty in the Imperial Palace , and other Noble-Mens Houses which are all built on that side of the River , but could not take the City , which was defended by 12000 Citizens , so that having sent his Forces into their Winter Quarters thereabouts , whilst Wrangel was marching into the Vpper Palatinate they received the News of a Peace being concluded at Munster .

This Peace had been long in agitation before it was brought to perfection , Peace made at Munster and Osnabrug . the Imperialists having endeavoured , after they saw the Swedes recover themselves so bravely after the Battel of Nomingen to persuade them to a separate Peace without including the Protestant Estates in Germany . But the Swedes having refused these offers as being neither honourable nor secure , seven years were spent in the Preliminaries , and these having been adjusted the Treaty it self was begun at Osnabrug and Munster , where the Emperours , Spanish , and Dutch Ambassadours , as also those of the most Roman Catholick Estates , and the Popes Nuncio were Resident , but in the first the Imperial Ambassadours also , and those of most of the Protestant Estates were assembled , where at last a Peace was concluded , by vertue of which Sweden got the Dukedoms of Bremen and Veerden , the greatest part of Pomerania , the Isle of Rugen , and the City of Wismar , to hold these Countries in Fief of the Empire , with all the Priviledges thereunto belonging , and five Millions of Crowns towards the payment of their Armies . Besides this they had the Honour of having been instrumental in re-establishing several German Princes in their Territories , and setling both the Quiet and Protestant Religion in Germany . The War being thus ended to the great Honour of the Swedes , the Queen , who had already then taken a resolution of surrendring the Crown to her Nephew Charles Gustave , would willingly have put an end to the Differences betwixt Sweden and Poland , which were likely to revive again after the Truce expired , but the Poles were so haughty in their Behaviour , and refractory in their Transactions that no Peace could be concluded at that time . Having therefore settled her Affairs and reserved a certain yearly allowance for her self during her life , she surrendred the Crown to the said Charles Gustave her Nephew at the Dyet at Vpsal , 1654. where he was Crowned the same day when she resigned the Government . Jun. 6.

§ 16. Charles Gustave . Charles Gustave , finding the Treasury exhausted , obtained at the first Dyet from the Estates that the fourth part of such Crown Lands as had been granted away since the Reign of Gustave Adolfe , should be reunited with the Crown , and having again settled the Military Affairs , which were somewhat decayed since the last Peace , resolved to force the Poles to an honourable Peace . The War with Poland renewed . The better to execute his design , he marched in Person into Poland , where he met with such success , that after having defeated some that would have opposed his passage , not only the Polanders , but also the Lithuanians submitted voluntarily , swearing Allegiance to him , and John Casimir , their King , was forced to fly into Silesia . But whilst the King of Sweden was marched into Prussia , the Poles , with the assistance of the House of Austria , having with the same readiness again forsaken his Interest , were faln upon the Swedes in their Quarters , of whom they killed a great many , especially in Lithuania , forcing the rest to seek for shelter in some strong Holds which were in their possession . The King having put an end to the differences betwixt him and the Elector of Brandenburgh concerning Prussia , in conjunction with the said Elector , marched back towards Warsaw , where he obtained a signal Victory over the Poles and Tartars ; and being in the beginning of the next year joined by Bogislaw Radzivil , 1656. Prince of Transylvania , would in all likelyhood have humbled the haughty Poles , if the Danes had not threatened a dangerous diversion near Home , and actually denounced War to Sweden .

This obliged the King to draw his main Army that way , War with Denmark . where he not only made great progresses both in Holstein and Bremen ; but also by a prodigy scarce to be believed by Posterity marched over the Ice into the Island of Tuhnen , 1658. and from thence to other Islands , and at last into Sealand , where he carried all before him , which brought the King of Denmark to such a distress , that he was forced to clap up a sudden Peace at Rocshild , giving to the Swedes Schonen , Halland and Bleckingen , the Isle of Bernholm , besides several other Possessions in Norway . But this Peace was of no long continuance , for the King having again conceived a jealousie at the Danes , Embarked his Forces in Holstein , and under pretence of going towards Datzick landed in Sealand , and besieged Copenhagen , Siege of Copenhagen . whilst Wrangel reduced the strong Fortress of Cronenburgh . But the Danes being chiefly encouraged by their King's presence defended themselves bravely , till the Dutch Fleet gave them relief , which obliged the King after having attempted , but in vain , to take it by Storm , to raise the Siege . But the greatest misfortune befel the Swedes in the Island of Tuhnen , Battel in Tuhnen . where being over numbred by the joint Forces of the Imperialists , Poles , Brandenburghers and Danes , they were totally routed near Nyborgh , 1666. their Infantry being most cut to pieces , and the rest made Prisoners . The King being busie in repairing this loss , was seized with an Epidemical Fever , of which he dyed on the 23. of February .

§ 17. Charles IX . Charles being but five years old when his Father dyed , the Swedes applyed all their care to obtain an honourable Peace , Peace made with the Poles , May 3. which was concluded with the Poles in the Monastery called Oliva , near Dantzick , wherein were also included the Emperour and Elector of Brandenburgh , and King John Casimir resigned his pretension to the Crown of Sweden , and the Poles to Livonia . In the same month a Peace was concluded with Denmark , May 23. Peace made with Denmark . much upon the same conditions , which were agreed on formerly at Rocshild , except that the Danes kept the Isle of Bornholm , and Druntheim in Norway . For the rest , the Swedes were for preserving Peace with their Neighbours during the minority of the King , till having broke off the Triple Alliance made betwixt them , and the English and Dutch they sided with France against the Elector of Brandenburgh , 1674. whom they pretended , by sending an Army into his Territories , to draw from the Interest of the Empire . But this occasioned a heavy War to the King , at the very beginning of his Reign , The Swedes routed by the Elector of Brandenburgh . wherein the Elector having routed the Swedish Army , took all what the Swedes were possessed of in Pomerania , as the Lunenburghers got into their possession the Dukedoms of Bremen and Veerden , and the King of Denmark the City of Wismar , and several considerable places in Shonen , but the Danes having at last been routed at two Battels in Shonen , the King after the Treaty of Nimeguen , by a particular Peace was put again into the possession of his Countries in Germany , very few excepted , and Denmark was forced also to restore the places taken from the Swedes in Shonen . This Peace having been again settled in Sweden , the King married Vlrica Eleanora the present King of Denmark's Sister , since which time the King has chiefly applied himself to settle his Military Affairs and Revenues , and to maintain the Peace with his Neighbours . 1678.

§ 18. The nature and qualification of the Swedish Nation . The Swedish and Gothick Nation has antiently been famous for Warlike Archievements , and is very fit to endure the Fatigues of War ; yet were their Military Affairs in former times but very indifferently ordered , their chiefest Force consisting in the Boors , till Gustave and his Successours with the assistance of some Scotch and German Officers and Souldiers have introduced such a Discipline as that now they do not stand in so much need of foreign Souldiers , except it be to make up the number of Men , wherewith they are not overstock'd , especially since the late great Wars . As in most other Kingdoms of Europe , by reason of the multitude of their populous Cities , the Estate of the Citizens is the fundamental part of the State , so is in Sweden that of the Boors , who enjoy more liberty in Sweden than in other Kingdoms , and also send their Deputies to the Dyet , where their consent is requisite to any new Taxes to be levied upon the Subjects .

This Nation loves to shew a great deal of gravity and reservedness , which if not qualified by conversation with other Nations , often degenerates into mistrustfulness . They generally are apt to think very well of themselves , and to despise others . They have sufficient Capacity to attain to the first Principles of any Art or Science , but commonly want Patience to attain to the perfection of them . Their inclination is not much to Trade or Handy-work , and therefore Manufacturies are but little encouraged among them .

§ 19. Condition of the Country and its Strength . The Kingdom of Sweden is of a great extent , but full of great Forests and innumerable Lakes , and the Sea-Coast surrounded with many Rocks . But deeper into the Country , there are a great many fertile tracts of Ground , the Forests furnish them with Fuel , and the Lakes with great store of good Fish , which also contribute much to the easie transportation of the Native Commodities from one place to another . The Country produces Corn sufficient for its Inhabitants , neither is there any want of Cattel or Horses . Sweden produces more Copper and Iron than any other Kingdom in the World , and their Mines are fitted by nature for that purpose , being surrounded with Woods and Rivulets . There is a Silver Mine in Westmanland . Finland brings forth Pitch , and Tar , and Deal ; and Wermeland good store of Masts . The Native Commodities of Sweden are Copper , Iron , Tar , Pitch , Masts , Boards &c. In lieu of which , Sweden receives from abroad Wine , Brandy , Salt , Spices , Cloaths , Silk and Woollen Stuffs , fine Linnen Cloath , French Manufactories of all sorts , Furs , Paper and such like , all which in some years surpasses in value the Commodities fit for exportation here . To recompence this , Navigation and Commerce has been encouraged of late years among the Natives , and several sorts of Manufactories , whereof those made of Copper , Iron and Brass would questionless turn to the best account , if these Artists were duely encouraged to settle themselves in this Kingdom , Copper and Iron being the foundation of the Swedish Commerce abroad . This present King has put their Forces both Horse and Foot in a better Condition than ever they were before , which are maintained in Sweden , with a small charge to the Crown , the Foot being maintained by the Boors , but the Horsemen have for the most part some Farms in their possession belonging to the Crown , the Revenues of which are their pay . But the King's Guards are paid out of his Treasury . Formerly the station of the Royal Navy was at Stockholm , but since a new Harbour has been made in Bleckingen , where the Ships may be put to Sea sooner , and with more conveniency . Besides this , Sweden has this advantage , that it is covered on the side of Norway with inaccessible Rocks , besides the three strong Fortresses of Bahus , Marstrand and Gothenburgh , and the Swedish and Finland Coasts are so well guarded by innumerable Islands , that it is very difficult to approach the shoar .

§ 20. Neighbours of Sweden . As to the Neighbours of Sweden , it borders on the East side upon Muscovy , with whom the Swedes in former times were often at War , Muscovites . but since Finland is now well covered against them by the Fortresses of Narva , Kexholm and Noteburgh , and they have learn'd by experience that the Swedes are better Souldiers than they , there is nothing to be feared from thence . And since the Swedes have no great reason to covet any further Conquests on that side , they may be taken now for good Neighbours . Poles . With the Poles the Swedes used formerly to have no difference at all , except when in outrage that Nation espoused the quarrel of their King concerning his Title to Sweden . But since Charles Gustave a little humbled their pretensions upon Livonia , as the Swedes have done upon Prussia , the Poles for the future may in all likelihood prove good Neighbours to Sweden . Germany . The Swedes have had antiently a great Communication with the Germans , by reason of their Commerce with the Hanse Towns . But since the Swedes have by the Westphalia Treaty been put into possession of two Provinces in Germany , they enjoy the same right with the rest of the Estates , and the King of Sweden is now to be considered as a Member , and not as a Neighbour of the Empire , whose Interest therefore is to see , that the Westphalia Treaty be kept in vigour . There is some jealousy betwixt the Swedes and the Elector of Brandenburgh , about some part of Pomerania , which would else have fallen to that Elector's share , and besides this , he is obliged to keep up a constant standing Army against so considerable a Neighbour , but since Sweden has preserved Brandenburgh and the rest of the Protestant Estates , and the said Elector has received a triple equivalent for this loss , it is but reasonable that something of allowance should be given as to this point especially , since it is not for the Interest of Sweden to make any further Conquests in Germany . But betwixt the Swedes and the House of Lunenburgh , there ought to be a good understanding , since they are able to do one another great Service against Denmark Brandenburgh and the Westphalian Bishops . Since Sweden by making the Sea the borders betwixt them and Denmark , Denmark . has put a stop to these troubles which formerly used to proceed from the too near neighbourhood of the Danes , and secured their Trade , it ought not to make any attempt of further Conquests in Denmark , it being the Interest of most Estates of Europe , to take care that neither of the two Northern Kings become sole Master of the Sound . Wherefore Sweden ought to endeavour to keep the present limits betwixt them and Denmark , and to live in amity with those Estates in Germany , who are jealous of the Neighbourhood of Denmark . The foundation of the good Correspondency , France . betwixt France and Sweden was built upon the common agreement of keeping under the overgrown Greatness of the House of Austria , but since the case is now altened , the King of France now pretends to play the Master over Princes . Sweden ought not to assist France in those Designs which overturn the Westphalian . Treaty , or are intended against the Protestants in Germany and Holland . The good understanding betwixt Sweden and Holland is chiefly founded upon this bottom , Holland . that as Sweden cannot be glad to see Holland ruined , so the Hollanders are obliged to prevent the King of Denmark from making himself sole Master of the passage of the Sound or the Baltick . England . England has hitherto had so little concern with those Northern parts , that their greatest Correspondency has been transacted by way of contemplating with very little Reality . Spain and Portugal . Spain is considered by the Swedes as a part of the House of Austria , tho' the Swedes have so far a concern in the Spanish Netherlands , as from their preservation depends the welfare of Holland . But the good understanding betwixt Sweden and Portugal depends only from the mutual Commerce of these two Nation , who else by reason of this great distance can scarce be serviceable to one another .