TRanslation having been so much in Vogue of late , and several Authors turn'd into English ; I made some Attempt herein , though with small hopes of Success : But at last having mentioned my Design to that Learned Gentleman , and my honoured Friend , Sir Edward Sherborne , he was pleased to encourage my Endeavours , both with the Communication of his own Sentiments , and the free use of his Curious and Choice Collection of Books ; for which I thought my self obliged to return him this Publick Acknowledgment ; as also for the great Civilities , and continued Favours received from his hands .

But amongst other Inducements I had to Translate this Piece of Xenophon : One was , to shew by the Examples of the Famous Commonwealths mentioned in this History ; that there is not that liberty to be expected from these Forms of Government , which our Republicans propos'd to themselves and Followers . For though the continual Cry of the Greeks was for Liberty , and against Oppression , yet they procured no further Remedy by their Alterations , than those who shift their Burden from Shoulder to Shoulder , but lessen not the Weight ; and at most they did but change the Tyranny , but not enlarge their Liberty . The Lacedemonian so much admired Constitution , had its Defects , and those not small ones ; and though it flourished longer than any of the rest in Greece , yet it had doubless been embroiled in Seditions and civil Wars , like other States , had there not been one thing peculiar to that Government : which was the exact Discipline and Obedience , wherein the Youth and Men were trained up ; being esteemed Sons of the Publick , and not of private Persons : which the Romans partly imitated , by giving the Father power over his Son all his life-time , or till he was thrice sold , and manumitted : and to this did Dionysius Halicarnassensis ascribe the Greatness of the Roman Empire .

But for the proof of my Assertion , I shall give a brief account of the Athenian , Lacedemonian , and Roman Common-wealths , the last being framed after the Lacedemonian Model ; and shew from these Instances , that the Changes of Government , and noise for Liberty , were the Occasion of all their Miseries .

To begin with the Lacedemonian ; an indifferent Observator may at first sight discover , from whence our Republicans have taken their Measures : and that the same Approaches have been made on our Monarchy as were on the Lacedemonian ; and without doubt they had carried on their Designs as far , had they not been timely discovered , and happily prevented .

The Lacedemonian Kings were at first absolute , and continued so till two Kings sat on the Throne at once , their Power being no more diminished hereby , than when there were Consorts in the Roman Empire , or now that there are two Czars in Moscovy . At length some of the Kings straining their Power ( there being no Government but what may be abused , whilst Men are subject to Passions , and Things to Change. ) Lycurgus one of the Royal blood contrived a new Model , joyning the Nobles with the Kings in the Government ; and made several Laws in favour of the People , taking with him the Nobility to the Oracle at Delphos , to enquire what Apollo thought of them : who confirmed his Laws , and so the observance of them became a Point of Conscience . Thus the Nobility first Invaded the Royal Prerogative : about 130 years after , Theopompus an easie King , thinking to entail the Kingdom more firmly on his Posterity , Instituted the Ephori ; who being farther to temper , and allay the Power of the King , did so far encroach in time , that he became their Slave ; and they made him little more than a private man ; having power to Mulct , Imprison , Banish , and put him to death ; nay , to alter the Succession , when they thought good . They had also the Priviledge to sit , when the King came into their presence , thinking it not proper to pay him Respect , whom they had under their Correction . The Ephori could make War and Peace ; the Ephori could put any to Death , without form of Justice : they were Treasurers , they kept the King poor , and their Power became at last exorbitant and tyrannical .

In the next place I come to speak of the Athenian Commonwealth ; the Athenians lived under a Monarchy , till that good King Codrus , who sacrificed himself for his Country ; and thereby gained so great a Veneration from the people , that they thought none worthy to succeed him , but changed the Kingly Government into a Republick administred by perpetual Archons , who were afterwards created for Ten years , and at last for One.

Xenophon the Author of this History was an Athenian , and being a Person of so great Learning and Ingenuity , he probably related nothing to the disadvantage of his Country : yet in his Treatise of the Athenian Commonwealth , he finds several faults with it . First , That the People had too great a Power , and carried all by Violence and Tumult ; and that it fared better in that Government with Rogues , than Honest-men : Besides the several Changes it suffered during the Transactions of this History , sufficiently evince its weakness , and imprudent Constitution . Their Reformer Solon settled his Laws by making himself Popular , and by introducing a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , a kind of Jubile , being like the Novae tabulae at Rome , which was a forgiving all Debtors what they owed ? Though he valued not the great Injustice and Oppression offer'd to the Creditors , by depriving them of their Estates at the same time , that he gave this Indulgence to the poorer sort . Their Ostracisme was a severe and unjust Law , by which they banished the bravest men , that had by their gallant Actions won the Love and Veneration of the People : And though this Popularity was not by their seeking , but a necessary Consequence of their Noble Exploits ; yet they must be packed out of the way for Ten years , and ruined : So great a Crime it was to deserve well of their Country ! This opened a Door to Revenge and other pretences ; for when any Faction had a mind to rid themselves of a Great Man , they had nothing to do but possess the people with a jealousie of his Popularity , for which he was banished , and their business done . Indeed some were Generous , and over-looked their Pievishness : but on the contrary , others , as Alcibiades resented it , who may truly be said to be the first that contrived the ruine of his Country .

In these Commonwealths for want of a Supream Head , the Ambitious thought they had as good a Title to the Government as others ; and by this means they were divided into Factions ; the stronger always taking it for granted that they were in the right , and thereupon banished the weaker ; who fled for protection to the Neighbouring Republicks , where they being set on by revenge , plotted and contrived to embroyl their Country in a War . The kind Reception the Fugitives found amongst the Athenians ( who were in this the Dutch of Greece ) made them not scruple to commit any Crimes , seeing they could find such easie shelter from Justice and the Law.

The Romans after the expulsion of their Kings , framed their Commonwealth according to the Lacedemonian Model , creating two Consuls ; and for the same reasons that the Lacedemonians did two Kings . But the People considering that they had no power , and the Senate all , became seditious : Nor would they be satisfied till they in imitation of the Spartan Ephori had created Tribunes ; whose persons were so Sacred , that if any did but speak derogatory from them , they had power to put him to Death without a Tryal . Nor were any the Authors of Sedition , Tumults , Murthers , and Civil Discord , more than the Tribunes , who were the Protectors of the People . 'T was these that ruined the Commonwealth , which they pretended to defend . The Authority of the Emperors that were absolute Lords of Rome , was made up of the Tribunes and Consul's Power : One may therefore conclude from hence , that there is not that liberty to be found in these Republicks , which some have imagined , and that the Subjects in them were meer Slaves , the Ephori being Tyrants amongst the Lacedemonians , the People amongst the Athenians , and the Tribunes amongst the Romans . For what greater Power can there be , than to inflict Punishment of Death without Form of Justice ? Estate follows Life ; and what can't they do in Religion , who are absolute Masters of the other two ? Liberty is desired by all ; of which we by our wise Constitution have a greater share than any Nation either has , or we could expect from a Change. And because our own Examples affect us most , we may look back to the late Civil Wars , which were begun and fomented for the Cause of Religion and Liberty ; yet both destroyed : the unhappy Nation suffering well nigh as many Alterations of Government , as it did Years of War and Confusion : The Troubles also drew along with them , Rebellion , Schism , Faction , Atheism , and a Train of Vices ; whose dire effects we still see in the General Corruption of Manners and Tendency of the Factious to the Old Game . Nor could our Differences be composed , till the Rightful Heir was recalled , and the Ancient Government together with our Liberty restored : which we enjoy under our Gracious Prince , rather unthankfully repining , than justly prizing it .

I Thought it might be necessary for the better understanding of this History , to give some Account of the Land and Naval Forces of the Greeks ; yet not to make a set Discourse about it , but only to speak of the Militia , as it was in the time of the Peloponnesian War : this Art continually altering and improving as well in former Times , as in this present Age.

It will be necessary also to Treat separately of the Lacedemonian Discipline , because it was distinct from that of the rest of the Greeks ; and then speak of those Particulars , wherein the Athenians and others varied from it .

The Lacedemonians were the most valiant People of all the Greeks ; and tho' their Numbers were but small , yet they were so well experienced , that they very rarely mist of Success , fighting with an assurance of Victory . Their Life was continually employ'd in Action , and such Provision was made by the Laws of their Country , that not only the Men , but the Women also were used to Robust Exercises , and the Parents inured to hardship , that the Children might be rendred strong , and able to undergo the Fatigue of War .

The Youth were divided into two Parties , and exercifed Mock-battels , encountring wheresoever they met , yet were they under such exact Discipline , that if any came by , and offered to part them , and they refused to obey , they were immediately carried before the Paedonomus , a Magistrate that took cognizance of those Crimes , and severely punish'd them , for being so far transported with Passion , as not to pay due Obedience to the Laws .

By this their Discipline they became hardy and resolute , fighting with that obstinacy , that they would rather die , than yield : But farther to habituate them to this Virtue of Martial Patience , they were once a year cruelly whipt at the Altar of Diana Orthia , which though it were rather a Punishment than an Exercise , yet they bore it with an Invincible Courage .

In this manner they were Train'd up till they came to thirty years of age ; for before none were suffered to go into the Campagn , unless it were upon a very great necessity . Thus having spent so many years in the Speculation of War , they became so strong and vigorous in the practice thereof , that they lasted forty years fit for Service , none having a Mission till he was seventy years of age .

Their Infantry consisted of Targetiers , Light-arm'd , and Heavy-arm'd men ; the Light-arm'd men were placed in the Wings , being commanded out in the Forelone-hope , and used in Skirmishes , because they were not loaden with Armour . Their Arms were Arrows , Darts , Staves , and Stones , which they threw , or slung ; taking any extemporary Weapon that came in their way . The Scholiast of Thucydides , says , they did not close , but fought at some distance , advancing , and retiring as they saw occasion for either .

The Targetiers were a middle sort , between the Light and Heavy-arm'd men , having a Target or lesser Shield , and a Sword : They were nimble and expeditious , and very useful for pursuing ; the Lacedemonian Regiment near Corinth being cut off by Iphicrates's Targetiers .

The Heavy-arm'd men were raised out of the beter sort , the other two being for the most part Mercenaries and Half-slaves : Their Arms were a Shield of Brass , a Pike and a Scymitar ; their business was to repulse the Enemy , and to maintain their ground , because the Fortune of the Day depended on them ; for if they were Defeated the Army was totally Routed : And in these indeed did the chief Strength of the Lacedemonians consist . When they put the Enemy to flight , the Horse light-arm'd men , and Targetiers pursued , though it was a Maxime amongst them , Not to be too eager , but to make their Enemies a Bridge of Gold , lest Desperation should make them fight and vanquish their Pursuers . Our Author also blames Agesilaus for meeting the Enemy in their flight , whereas he ought to have rather given them way , and followed the Pursuit .

As for their Horse , the Lacedemonians had a Body of three hundred that fought near the King , like the Roman Celeres : But they were very deficient in this part of their Militia , those they had were arm'd with Spears , and Charged full Cariere ; some of them carried Bows , and were called Hippotoxotae . They were furnished with the main Body of their Horse from the Thebans ; and being at War with them , they were deprived of those Auxiliaries : So that Epaminondas the Theban General , knowing the Lacedemonians were weak in Cavalry , charged them at the Battels of Leuctra and Mantinea , with his own and the Thessalian Troops , whereby he gave them those two memorable Overthrows .

The Lacedemonian Forces consisted both of their own Subjects , called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and their Allies . Of the first there were four sorts : The Spartans which were the Inhabitants of the City , and enjoyed more Priviledges than the rest ; the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or the Lacedemonians which dwelt in the Country ; the Half-slaves who had merited Freedom by their Valour : The Lacedemonians thinking it of dangerous Consequence to cut them absolutely off of all hopes , lest the desperateness of their Fortune might provoke them to rise up in Arms against the Government , and subvert it : the last were the Slaves , the Candidates for Liberty , whom they trained , because the Wars made such a consumption of People , and raised Emulation in them , that they might advance themselves thereby to their Freedom . The Confederates made up the Gross of their Army , for their own Numbers were but small , which they concealed either out of a Maxime of their own , or that the Enemies by knowing how few they were , might not despise them : Yet this inconsiderable Number , were men of such extraordinary Valour , that Agis being askt , How many strong the Lacedemonians were ? made answer , Enough to fight any Army whatsoever . However one may conclude from the Forces they had at Leuctra , that they were not very numerous ; because though but Four hundred Spartans out of Seven hundred , and a thousand Lacedemonians were slain , yet this Loss was so great , that they were forc'd to take in all under seventy years of age to recruit their Army ; and their Men were so exhausted , that they had scarce enough wherewith to supply the necessary Offices of Government .

The Spartans and Lacedemonians were called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or Regiments , being opposed to the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or Allies : In each 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 were Four 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 in every 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 8 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in every 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Sixteen 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which last contained two and thirty men , according to the Scholiast of Thucydides , so that a 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 consisted of Five hundred and twelve . Xenophon and the Scholiast of Thucydides differ in their Computations , for in these things no certain Number can be assign'd ; and so the Roman Legion , as our Regiment was more or less , having no determinate Number . Each 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 had its 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or Colonel , under whom was the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or Lieutenant Colonel . The Phalanx at this time was not taken for any certain Number , but sometimes for a Battalion , or sometimes for the whole body of Foot. The eldest Polemarch was Lieutenant General of the Army , and after Cleombrotus was slain in the Battel of Leuctra , Dino the Polemarch commanded in Chief . Besides these there were three hundred Horse , and six hundred Sciritae , which were a a chosen Band , that were placed in the left Wing .

The whole Army was Conducted by one of their Kings , who had an absolute and uncontrollable Power , till Agis was so unfortunate as to make an hasty Treaty , and then they assign'd him a Council of War , without whose joynt Consent he could not act : Or else by a General who had the Title of Harmostes , which was given also to the Governour of a Town . If the King was a Minor , then the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or Protector , commanded for him . Before an Expedition was undertaken , the King performed some preparatory Sacrifices , called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and took the Field near Harvest , that being the most likely-time to draw the Enemy out of their Fortresses to a Battel , because they would come forth to defend their Corn : If they did not , the Lacedemonians did not sit down before their Garisons ; it being forbidden them by their Laws to besiege Towns , because any kind of men by the benefit of a Wall might resist the most couragious , and a valiant Man might be destroyed by an impotent Woman .

The Lacedemonians therefore being less expert in Seiges than any other of the Greeks , they would not suffer any of their Neighbours to Fortifie , but either pull'd down their Walls by force , or oblig'd them thereto by Treaty . Though they had a fair pretence that no strong Holds should be built , lest the Persian if he Invaded Greece any more , should possess himself thereof , and gain firm footing in their Country . I don't find that the Ancient Greeks had any formal ways of besieging Towns , further than the raising a Wall about the Place they beleagur'd , whereby they cut off Provisions and Succors from the Besieged . Their Engines were but ordinary , and rather invented occasionally than used commonly . By the account we have of the famous Siege of Plataeae , we may Collect what their Methods were in others : It was at first Invested by the Peloponesians and Thebans ; but the former marched home , and left the Siege to the management of the Thebans , who built two Walls of Brick sixteen Foot wide , like the Lines of Contravallation and Circumvallation , between which they posted themselves : After that they raised a Cavallier , or high Mount to over-look the Town . On the contrary , the Besiged erected a wooden Wall upon the other of Stone , to intercept the Enemies Prospect into the City , and ran up another of Brick for a Retrenchment , if the outermost should be taken . Whilst the Thebans raised their Cavallier , the Besieged carried a Mine to it , and took away the Earth as fast as the Besiegers brought it , and thereby hindred the advance of the Work.

They had also another Device in the Attacking of Towns , which was to carry a great deal of Combustible matter near the Walls , that they set on fire , and forcing the Enemy from their Posts with the Flames , they entred by the benefit thereof , and so carried it on to the Houses : The Besieged did not make frequent Sallies , for if they had , four hundred and eighty Men could not have defended Plataeoe the space of two years . Towns were taken three ways , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 by Assault , by Surrender , when the Garrison and Inhabitants deliver'd up the Place before the Enemy sat down before it : to this latter is opposed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , when the Enemy made Works , and took the Place by Siege .

When the Armies were in the Field , they threw up a Trench , and planted Pallizado's upon it , to secure themselves from the Surprize of an Enemy . The Generals drew up their Battel in the form of a Wedge , and in an Oblong Figure , which sometimes was with the longest side to the Front , and other-whiles the longest side in depth ; they drew up sometimes in one , and sometimes in another , according as they thought it most for their advantage . When the Battalions were made deep , or form'd into a Wedge ; the Design was to break through the Enemies Battel and to rout them : Though these Forms had their Inconveniences ; the first especially , because they being many in File , and few in Front , the Enemies that Out-winged them , might Flank them , and fall in at those Intervals which were made by the eager and unequal pressing forward of the foremost Ranks , and ruine their Body . Neither would it hold in parity of Reason , that because a Wedge of Iron would rive a Block , that therefore one of men should pierce a Battalion .

The Thebans at the Battel of Leuctra were few in Front , and fifty deep , supposing if they made so strong an Impression on those about the Lacedemonian King as to Rout them , that they should Defeat the rest with ease ; and accordingly it hapned . The Heavy-arm'd men were Marshalled so as to receive the Light-arm'd men and Targetiers within them ; ( the ancients Heavy-arm'd men being like our Pike-men ) whereby they who had the rising-ground , obtain'd a considerable advantage over those that were drawn up in a Plain : Which Thrasybulus took notice of to his Souldiers , when he encouraged them to fight against the Thirty Tyrants ; telling them that the Enemy stood on a Level , and none but those who were in the Front could make use of their Darts and Lances ; whilst they standing on an Hill , could employ all hands , and bring every one to fight .

Before the Battel began , an Hymn was sung to animate the Souldiers , and the like after by those who had obtained the Victory . Most of the Greeks when they engaged set up a shout , and ran with a full Cry upon the Enemy , but the Lacedemonians differ'd from them in this , for they had Pipers disposed up and down in convenient Stations , who were to play when the Army moved , that the Souldiers might pace according to the Modulation of the Pipes . And whereas the fury and noise affected by others was to beget Courage in them , and hurry them on against the Enemy ; the Lacedemonians advanced , and struck a terrour into their Antagonists , with their Resolution and Gravity . The greatest disgrace amongst them was to lose their Shields , such being branded with the Name of 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 Nor was it less reproachful to fly , as may be gathered from the Epigram about an Heroick Woman , who meeting her Son running out of the Field , killed him with this Elogy ; that she could forget the Affection of a Mother , whilst he forgot the Duty of a Lacedemonian . Their Education and Discipline made them so terrible , that none cared to engage with them , they being Men positively resolv'd to Conquer , or to die . When a Victory was obtain'd , the Conquerors went to the place where the Battel began , sang an Hymn , and erected a Trophy as a Monument of their Success , and delivered the Slain upon Truce ; for the Greeks were very careful to bestow burial upon their Dead , not only out of Decency , but a superstitious Conceit , that the Souls of the Dead were not at rest till the Bodies were interr'd .

In order to the making of Peace , there was 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , a cessation of Arms , till such time as they treated of a Truce or Peace , though generally a Truce or temporary Peace was made ; as that of Euboea for thirty years ; a second between the Peloponnesians and Athenians for fifty years ; and another for an hundred : The Forms of their Peace were engraven on Pillars , as the Roman Treaties were in the Capitol ; and if any Party violated them , the breach hereof was under-written .

The Athenian Militia differed from the Spartan : The Athenians being Lords of the Sea , and possest of many Islands , were able to bring a far more numerous Army into the Field than the Lacedemonians , or any one Estate of Greece . Pericles exciting his Country-men to pursue the War vigorously against the Peloponnesians , tells them that they had thirteen thousand Heavy-arm'd men , besides sixteen thousand more disperst up and down in the Garisons and Frontiers ; to which if we add the proportion of Light-arm'd men and Targetiers , they will make up a very powerful Army . The Forces of the Athenians were called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , as those of the Spartans 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and opposed to the Auxiliaries : They were raised according to the Tribes which were ten in number ; for amongst the Hebrews and Romans , the Division by Tribes was accommodated to the Military as well as Civil Government . The 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , frequently mentioned in this History , were the Captains of the Heavy-arm'd men . They had also a standing Body of Horse , not exceeding a thousand , to which were assigned forty Talents , or seven thousand five hundred pound Sterling for their-yearly maintenance . The Cavalry were commanded by two Hipparchs or Colonels , who had ten Phylarchs or Captains subordinate to them ; because these were raised by the Tribes as the Heavy-arm'd men .